Dothistroma septosporum, the primary causal agent of Dothistroma needle blight, is one of the most significant foliar pathogens of pine worldwide. Its wide host and environmental ranges have led to its global success as a pathogen and severe economic damage to pine forests in many regions. This comprehensive global population study elucidated the historical migration pathways of the pathogen to reveal the Eurasian origin of the fungus. When over 3800 isolates were examined, three major population clusters were revealed: North America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe, with distinct subclusters in the highly diverse Eastern European cluster. Modeling of historical scenarios using approximate Bayesian computation revealed the North American cluster was derived from an ancestral population in Eurasia. The Northeastern European subcluster was shown to be ancestral to all other European clusters and subclusters. The Turkish subcluster diverged first, followed by the Central European subcluster, then the Western European cluster, which has subsequently spread to much of the Southern Hemisphere. All clusters and subclusters contained both mating-types of the fungus, indicating the potential for sexual reproduction, although asexual reproduction remained the primary mode of reproduction. The study strongly suggests the native range of D. septosporum to be in Eastern Europe (i.e., the Baltic and Western Russia) and Western Asia.

Department Forest Ecosystems Protection University of Agriculture in Kraków 31 425 Kraków Poland

Department of Agricultural Food Environmental and Forest Sciences and Technologies University of Florence 50144 Firenze Italy

Department of Biochemistry Genetics and Microbiology Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute Pretoria 0002 South Africa

Department of Botany and Zoology Faculty of Science Masaryk University 61137 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences Faculty of Forestry The University of British Columbia 2424 Main Mall Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada

Department of Forest Entomology Phytopathology and Game Fauna Forest Research Institut Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 1756 Sofia Bulgaria

Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 75007 Uppsala Sweden

Department of Forest Protection Slovenian Forestry Institute Večna pot 2 SI 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Department of Forest Protection Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration 61024 Kharkiv Ukraine

Department of Forest Protection Wood Science and Game Management Saint Petersburg State Forest Technical University 194021 Saint Petersburg Russia

Department of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana Večna pot 83 SI 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Department of Microbiology and Biomonitoring University of Agriculture in Kraków 30 059 Kraków Poland

Department of Plant Pathology and Mycology Institute of Forest Ecology SAS 949 01 Nitra Slovakia

Faculty of Forestry Çankırı Karatekin University 18200 Çankırı Turkey

Faculty of Forestry University of Zagreb 10002 Zagreb Croatia

Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes Université Laval Pavillon Charles Eugène Marchand 1030 Avenue de la Médecine Québec City QC G1V 0A6 Canada

Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy

Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering Estonian University of Life Sciences 51006 Tartu Estonia

Natural Resources Institute FI 77600 Suonenjoki Finland

Natural Resources Institute Finland Bioeconomy and Environment P O Box 2 FI 00791 Helsinki Finland

Nature Research Centre Institute of Botany Žaliųjų Ežerų Str 49 LT 08406 Vilnius Lithuania

Norwegian institute of Bioeconomy P O Box 115 N 1431 Ås Norway

Phytophthora Research Centre Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Department of Forest Protection and Wildlife Management Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská 3 61300 Brno Czech Republic

Plant Health Diagnostic National Reference Laboratory National Food Chain Safety Office H 1118 Budapest Hungary

Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Swiss Forest Protection 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland

Vokė Branch of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry LT 02232 Vilnius Lithuania

Walloon Agricultural Research Centre Department of Life Sciences B 5030 Gembloux Belgium

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Dothistroma septosporum and Dothistroma pini, the causal agents of Dothistroma needle blight, are infected by multiple viruses

Population structure and diversity of the needle pathogen Dothistroma pini suggests human-mediated movement in Europe