Butterflies and moths are conspicuous flower visitors but their role in plant-pollinator interactions has rarely been quantified, especially in tropical rainforests. Moreover, we have virtually no knowledge of environmental factors affecting the role of lepidopterans in pollination networks. We videorecorded flower-visiting butterflies and hawkmoths on 212 plant species (> 26,000 recorded hrs) along the complete elevational gradient of rainforests on Mount Cameroon in dry and wet seasons. Altogether, we recorded 734 flower visits by 80 butterfly and 27 hawkmoth species, representing only ~ 4% of all flower visits. Although lepidopterans visited flowers of only a third of the plant species, they appeared to be key visitors for several plants. Lepidopterans visited flowers most frequently at mid-elevations and dry season, mirroring their local elevational patterns of diversity. Characteristics of interaction networks showed no apparent elevational or seasonal patterns, probably because of the high specialisation of all networks. Significant non-linear changes of proboscis and forewing lengths were found along elevation. A positive relationship between the lengths of proboscis of hesperiid butterflies and tube of visited flowers was detected. Differences in floral preferences were found between sphingids and butterflies, revealing the importance of nectar production, floral size and shape for sphingids, and floral colour for butterflies. The revealed trait-matching and floral preferences confirmed their potential to drive floral evolution in tropical ecosystems.

Department of Biology of Organisms and Populations Faculty of Fundamental and Applied Science University of Poitiers 5 rue Albert Turpain 86000 Poitiers France

Department of Ecology Faculty of Science Charles University Viničná 7 12843 Prague Czechia

Department of Invertebrate Evolution Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research Jagiellonian Univeristy Gronostajowa 9 30 387 Kraków Poland

Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia Branišovská 1760 37005 České Budějovice Czechia

Institute of Entomology Biology Centre Czech Academy of Sciences Branišovská 31 37005 České Budějovice Czechia

Institute of Silviculture and Forest Protection Faculty of Forestry University of West Hungary Bajcsy Zsilinszky utca 4 9400 Sopron Hungary

Nicholas School of the Environment Duke University 9 Circuit Dr Durham NC 27710 USA

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