Insects that naturally tolerate internal freezing produce complex mixtures of multiple cryoprotectants (CPs). Better knowledge on composition of these mixtures, and on the mechanisms of individual CP interactions, could inspire development of laboratory CP formulations optimized for cryopreservation of cells and other biological material. Here, we identify and quantify (using high resolution mass spectrometry) a range of putative CPs in larval tissues of a subarctic fly, Chymomyza costata, which survives long-term cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen. The CPs proline, trehalose, glutamine, asparagine, glycine betaine, glycerophosphoethanolamine, glycerophosphocholine and sarcosine accumulate in hemolymph in a ratio of 313:108:55:26:6:4:2.9:0.5 mmol l-1. Using calorimetry, we show that artificial mixtures, mimicking the concentrations of major CPs in hemolymph of freeze-tolerant larvae, suppress the melting point of water and significantly reduce the ice fraction. We demonstrate in a bioassay that mixtures of CPs administered through the diet act synergistically rather than additively to enable cryopreservation of otherwise freeze-sensitive larvae. Using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI), we show that during slow extracellular freezing trehalose becomes concentrated in partially dehydrated hemolymph where it stimulates transition to the amorphous glass phase. In contrast, proline moves to the boundary between extracellular ice and dehydrated hemolymph and tissues where it probably forms a layer of dense viscoelastic liquid. We propose that amorphous glass and viscoelastic liquids may protect macromolecules and cells from thermomechanical shocks associated with freezing and transfer into and out of liquid nitrogen.

Crop Research Institute 16106 Praha Czech Republic

Czech Centre of Phenogenomics Institute of Molecular Genetics Czech Academy of Sciences 25250 Vestec Czech Republic

Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia 37005 České Budějovice Czech Republic

Institute of Entomology Biology Centre Czech Academy of Sciences 37005 České Budějovice Czech Republic

References provided by Crossref.org

Extracellular freezing induces a permeability transition in the inner membrane of muscle mitochondria of freeze-sensitive but not freeze-tolerant Chymomyza costata larvae

How to eliminate pathogen without killing oneself? Immunometabolism of encapsulation and melanization in Drosophila

Stabilization of insect cell membranes and soluble enzymes by accumulated cryoprotectants during freezing stress

Insect cross-tolerance to freezing and drought stress: role of metabolic rearrangement

Cryoprotective Metabolites Are Sourced from Both External Diet and Internal Macromolecular Reserves during Metabolic Reprogramming for Freeze Tolerance in Drosophilid Fly, Chymomyza costata