Domesticated yaks endure as iconic symbols of high-altitude frozen landscapes, where herding communities depend on their high-fat milk, transport, dung, and natural fibers. While there is established proteomic evidence for ancient consumption of ruminant and horse milk in the mountains and steppes of northern Eurasia, yak dairy products have yet to be detected. Yak domestication and the species' dispersal from Tibet into the mountainous zones to the north are also poorly resolved due to a paucity of zooarchaeological data. To examine the potential of paleoproteomics to shed light on domesticated yak in Mongolia, we analyzed human dental calculus from Mongol era elite individuals recovered from permafrost burials in Khovsgol province, where people continue to herd yak to this day. We report the first evidence for yak dairy consumption, linked to local resource control. In addition, we confirm a large diversity of recovered whey, curd, tissue, and blood proteins, likely reflecting the excellent preservation conditions found at permafrost sites.

Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution Griffith University Brisbane 4111 QLD Australia

Department of Anthropology and Archaeology National University of Mongolia Baga toiruu 44 Ulaanbaatar 46a Mongolia

Department of Anthropology University of Michigan Ann Arbor 48109 MI USA

Department of Archaeology Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Kahlaische Strasse 10 07745 Jena Germany

Department of Archaeology University of Calgary Calgary AB Canada

Department of Archaeology University of Exeter Laver Building North Parks Road Exeter UK

Department of Sociology Social Work and Anthropology Utah State University Logan UT USA

Faculty of Arts Masaryk University Arne Nováka 1 602 00 Brno střed Czechia

Flinders University Department of Archaeology Flinders University Bedford Park 5042 Adelaide SA Australia

History of Art Department University of Michigan Ann Arbor 48109 MI USA

Institute for Evolutionary Medicine Faculty of Medicine University of Zürich 8057 Zürich Switzerland

Museum of Anthropological Archaeology University of Michigan Ann Arbor 48109 MI USA

National Museum of Mongolia Juulchin Street 1 Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

NOMAD Science Glen MT USA

School of Archaeology University of Oxford 1 South Parks Road Oxford UK

School of Social Science University of Queensland Brisbane QLD Australia

Section for GeoGenetics The GLOBE Institute University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Smithsonian Institution New York NY USA

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