Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Phlebotominae) are the principal vectors of Leishmania spp. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae). In Central Europe, Phlebotomus mascittii is the predominant species, but largely understudied. To better understand factors driving its current distribution, we infer patterns of genetic diversity by testing for signals of population expansion based on two mitochondrial genes and model current and past climate and habitat suitability for seven post-glacial maximum periods, taking 19 climatic variables into account. Consequently, we elucidate their connections by environmental-geographical network analysis. Most analyzed populations share a main haplotype tracing back to a single glacial maximum refuge area on the Mediterranean coasts of South France, which is supported by network analysis. The rapid range expansion of Ph. mascittii likely started in the early mid-Holocene epoch until today and its spread possibly followed two routes. The first one was through northern France to Germany and then Belgium, and the second across the Ligurian coast through present-day Slovenia to Austria, toward the northern Balkans. Here we present a combined approach to reveal glacial refugia and post-glacial spread of Ph. mascittii and observed discrepancies between the modelled and the current known distribution might reveal yet overlooked populations and potential further spread.

Animal Health Department The AgriFood Institute of Aragon School of Veterinary Medicine University of Zaragoza Zaragoza Spain

Applied Zoology and Animal Conservation Group University of the Balearic Islands Palma de Mallorca Spain

Departamento de Producción y Sanidad Animal Salud Pública Veterinaria y Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos Facultad de Veterinaria Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Valencia Spain

Department of Animal Health Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group University of Cordoba Cordoba Spain

Department of Animal Production and Health Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Technology Facultad de Veterinaria Universidad Cardenal Herrera CEU CEU Universities Valencia Spain

Department of Arbovirology Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine Hamburg Germany

Department of Biodiversity FAMNIT University of Primorska Koper Capodistria Slovenia

Department of Biology Ecology Section Faculty of Science VERG Laboratories Hacettepe University Ankara Turkey

Department of Clinical Sciences of Veterinary Medicine Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Sarajevo Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina

Department of Parasitology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Department of Pathobiology and Epidemiology Veterinary Faculty University of Sarajevo Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina

Department of Veterinary Medicine University of Bari Bari Italy

Division of Science Research and Development Federal Ministry of Defence Vienna Austria

Faculty of Science The University of Melbourne Parkville Australia

Faculty of Veterinary Sciences Bu Ali Sina University Hamedan Iran

German Mosquito Control Association Speyer Germany

Institut de Recherche pour le Développement Université de Montpellier UMR INTERTRYP Parasite Infectiology and Public Health Research group IRD CIRAD Montpellier France

Institute for Dipterology Speyer Germany

Institute of Biology University of Graz Graz Austria

Institute of Global Health Heidelberg University Heidelberg Germany

Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine Center for Pathophysiology Infectiology and Immunology Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria

INTHERES Université de Toulouse INRAE ENVT Toulouse France

Laboratorio de investigación de Entomología Departamento de Zoología Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Bloque B Universidad de Valencia Valencia Spain

Laboratory of Parasitology Micology and Medical Entomology Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie Legnaro Padova Italy

Research Group Vector Control Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine Hamburg Germany

UMR MIVEGEC Institute of Research for Development Montpellier France

Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne ESCAPE EA7510 USC ANSES VECPAR SFR Cap Santé UFR de Pharmacie Reims France

University of Pannonia Sustainability Solutions Research Lab Veszprém Hungary

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