Sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae) are the principal vectors of Leishmania spp., the causative agents of leishmaniasis, as well as phleboviruses. In the Balkans, the endemicity and spreading of sand fly-borne diseases are evident, particularly in the Republic of Kosovo, a country with a predominantly humid continental climate. To date, understanding the drivers behind the spatial structure and diversity patterns of sand fly communities in humid continental regions remains limited. Therefore, elucidating the geographical and ecological factors contributing to the presence of potential vector species in the country is crucial. We aimed to enhance our understanding of factors influencing sand fly occurrence in cool and wet wintering humid continental areas, which could serve as a model for other countries with similar climatic conditions. Therefore, we assessed the currently known sand fly fauna through detailed environmental analyses, including Voronoi tessellation patterns, entropy calculations, Principal Coordinate and Component Analyses, Hierarchical Clustering, Random Trees, and climatic suitability patterns. Notable differences in the ecological tolerance of the species were detected, and the most important climatic features limiting sand fly presence were wind speed and temperature seasonality. Sand flies were observed to prefer topographical environments with little roughness, and the modelled climatic suitability values indicated that, dominantly, the western plain regions of Kosovo harbour the most diverse sand fly fauna; and are the most threatened by sand fly-borne diseases. Phlebotomus neglectus and P. perfiliewi, both confirmed vectors for L. infantum and phleboviruses, were identified as two main species with vast distribution in Kosovo. Contrary to this, most other present species are relatively sparse and restricted to temperate rather than humid continental regions. Our findings reveal a diverse potential sand fly fauna in Kosovo, indicating the need for tailored strategies to address varying risks across the country's western and eastern regions in relation to leishmaniasis control amidst changing environmental conditions.

Center for Pathophysiology Infectiology and Immunology Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine Medical University Vienna Kinderspitalgasse 15 1090 Vienna Austria

Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Skopje Ss Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Lazar Pop Trajkov 5 7 1000 Skopje North Macedonia

Department of Parasitology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Viničná 7 128 43 Prague Czech Republic

Division of Science Research and Development Federal Ministry of Defence Roßauer Lände 1 1090 Vienna Austria

Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary University of Prishtina 'Hasan Prishtina' Bulevardi 'Bill Clinton' P N 10000 Prishtinë Kosovo

University of Pannonia Sustainability Solutions Research Lab Egyetem u 10 H 8200 Hungary

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