Sub-Saharan Africa is under-represented in global biodiversity datasets, particularly regarding the impact of land use on species' population abundances. Drawing on recent advances in expert elicitation to ensure data consistency, 200 experts were convened using a modified-Delphi process to estimate 'intactness scores': the remaining proportion of an 'intact' reference population of a species group in a particular land use, on a scale from 0 (no remaining individuals) to 1 (same abundance as the reference) and, in rare cases, to 2 (populations that thrive in human-modified landscapes). The resulting bii4africa dataset contains intactness scores representing terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods: ±5,400 amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) and vascular plants (±45,000 forbs, graminoids, trees, shrubs) in sub-Saharan Africa across the region's major land uses (urban, cropland, rangeland, plantation, protected, etc.) and intensities (e.g., large-scale vs smallholder cropland). This dataset was co-produced as part of the Biodiversity Intactness Index for Africa Project. Additional uses include assessing ecosystem condition; rectifying geographic/taxonomic biases in global biodiversity indicators and maps; and informing the Red List of Ecosystems.

A P Leventis Ornithological Research Institute University of Jos Jos Nigeria

Accelerated Taxonomy Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Richmond United Kingdom

African Parks Bangui Central African Republic

African Parks Johannesburg South Africa

AfricanBats NPC Centurion South Africa

Agriculture Health and Environment Natural Resources Institute University of Greenwich Chatham Maritime United Kingdom

Animal Production Institute Rangeland Ecology Agricultural Research Council Pretoria South Africa

Anthropology Department and Environmental Studies Program California State University Fullerton Fullerton United States of America

Applied Behavioural Ecological and Ecosystem Research Unit University of South Africa Florida South Africa

Aquatic Ecology University of Kisangani Biodiversity Monitoring Center Kisangani Democratic Republic of the Congo

Arid Lands Node of the South African Environmental Observation Network Kimberley South Africa

Białowieża Geobotanical Station Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Białowieża Poland

Biodiversity Capabilities Directorate CapeNature Cape Town South Africa

Biodiversity Conservation Reptile and Amphibian Program Sierra Leone Freetown Sierra Leone

Biodiversity Research Centre Namibia University of Science and Technology Windhoek Namibia

Biodiversity Research Institute Mieres Spain

Biological Sciences and Centre for Statistics in Ecology Environment and Conservation University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Biological Sciences Texas Tech University Lubbock United States of America

Biological Sciences University of Eswatini Kwaluseni Eswatini

Biology Department Whitman College Walla Walla WA USA

Biology Mbarara University of Science and Technology Mbarara Uganda

Biology University of Washington Seattle USA

Biology Vancouver Island University Nanaimo Canada

BIOPOLIS CIBIO InBIO University of Porto Porto Portugal

BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics Biodiversity and Land Planning CIBIO Campus de Vairão Vairão Portugal

Bird Department Durban Natural Science Museum Durban South Africa

BirdLife South Africa Johannesburg South Africa

CBGP IRD CIRAD INRAE Institut Agro University of Montpellier Montpellier France

Center for Tropical Research Institute of the Environment and Sustainability University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles USA

Center of Excellence in Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management University of Rwanda Huye Rwanda

Centre for African Conservation Ecology Nelson Mandela University Gqeberha South Africa

Centre for African Ecology School of Animal Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa

Centre for Biodiversity National Museums of Kenya Nairobi Kenya

Centre for Environmental Management University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa

Centre for Environmental Studies University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Centre for Functional Biodiversity School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa

Centre for Geography and Environmental Science University of Exeter Penryn Cornwall United Kingdom

Centre for Invasion Biology Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa

Centre for Invasion Biology Institute of Biodiversity Yunnan University Kunming UMR7179 China

Centre for Social Science Research University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Centre for Sustainability Transitions Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa

Chair in Biodiversity Value and Change Faculty of Science Engineering and Agriculture University of Venda Thohoyandou South Africa

Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Management University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany

CIBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos University of Porto Vairao Portugal

CIRI Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie Université de Lyon Lyon France

College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Department of Environmental Sciences University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa

Colobus Conservation Diani Kenya

Cologne Zoo Cologne Germany

Conservation Alpha Cape Town South Africa

Conservation Biology Institute of Primate Research National Museums of Kenya Nairobi Kenya

Conservation Division BirdLife South Africa Johannesburg South Africa

Conservation Programs Royal Zoological Society of Scotland Edinburgh United Kingdom

Conservation Services South African National Parks Pretoria South Africa

Conserve Global London United Kingdom

Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development Utrecht University Utrecht The Netherlands

Departamento de Zoología Universidad de Granada Granada Spain

Departement of Biology Faculty of Science University of Kinshasa Kinshasa Democratic Republic of the Congo

Department of Agricultural Economics Extension and Rural Development University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Department of Animal and Plant Systematics National Museum Bloemfontein South Africa

Department of Animal Biologie and Physiologie University of Yaounde 1 Yaounde Cameroon

Department of Anthropology and Archaeology University of Calgary Calgary Canada

Department of Anthropology University of California Los Angeles USA

Department of Anthropology University of Minnesota Twin Cities Minneapolis MN USA

Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Bellville South Africa

Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Cape Town South Africa

Department of Biological Sciences University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Department of Biological Sciences University of Sierra Leone Freetown Sierra Leone

Department of Biology and Natural Resources Frostburg State University Frostburg USA

Department of Biology CRSN LWIRO DS Bukavu DR Congo Bukavu Democratic Republic of the Congo

Department of Biology University of Florence Sesto Fiorentino Italy

Department of Biology University of Venda Thohoyandou South Africa

Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa

Department of Botany Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa

Department of Conservation and Marine Sciences Cape Peninsula University of Technology Cape Town South Africa

Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch South Africa

Department of Conservation Management Nelson Mandela University George South Africa

Department of Ecology and Wildlife Management University of Kisangani Kisangani Democratic Republic of the Congo

Department of Ecology Evolution and Environmental Biology Columbia University New York NY USA

Department of Economic Development Environment Conservation and Tourism North West Provincial Government Mahikeng South Africa

Department of Ecoscience Aarhus University Aarhus C Denmark

Department of Environment and Sustainability Sciences University for Development Studies Tamale Ghana

Department of Environmental Management Makerere University Kampala Uganda

Department of Environmental Science School of Science University of Namibia Windhoek Namibia

Department of Environmental Sciences Rhodes University Makhanda South Africa

Department of Environmental Sciences University of South Africa Florida South Africa

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Maasai Mara University Narok Kenya

Department of Human Behavior Ecology and Culture Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Germany

Department of Life and Consumer Sciences University of South Africa Roodepoort South Africa

Department of Mammalogy National Museum Bloemfontein South Africa

Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Department of Migration Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior Radolfzell Germany

Department of Natural History Florida Museum of Natural History University of Florida Gainesville USA

Department of Natural History New Brunswick Museum Saint John Canada

Department of Natural Resources Karatina University Karatina Kenya

Department of Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester United Kingdom

Department of Wildlife and Range Management Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi Ghana

Department of Zoology Al Azhar University Cairo Egypt

Department of Zoology and Entomology University of Fort Hare Alice South Africa

Department of Zoology and Entomology University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Department of Zoology and Entomology University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa

Department of Zoology National Museum of the Czech Republic Prague Czech Republic

Department of Zoology Stockholm University Stockholm Sweden

Division of Conservation Ecology Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History Coimbatore India

Eastern Africa Primate Diversity and Conservation Program Nanyuki Kenya

Ecological Consultant Fürth Germany

Endangered Wildlife Trust Midrand South Africa

Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford United Kingdom

Environmental Change Institute University of Oxford Oxford United Kingdom

Environmental Sciences University of Ebolowa Ebolowa Cameroon

Evolution Ecology and Organismal Biology University of California Riverside Riverside CA USA

Evolutionary Biology Estación Biológica de Doñana Seville Spain; CIBER CIBERESP Madrid Spain

Evolutionary Ecology Group University of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Pietermaritzburg South Africa

Faculty of Agronomic Sciences Laboratory of Applied Ecology University of Abomey Calavi Cotonou Benin

Faculty of Science Laboratory of Biology and Physiology of Animal Organisms Zoology Unit University of Douala Douala Cameroon

FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology University of Cape Town Rondebosch South Africa

Flora Fauna and Man Ecological Services Limited Tortola British Virgin Islands

Frogs and Friends Berlin Germany

FunMorph Lab Department of Biology University of Antwerp Antwerp Belgium

Fynbos Node of the South African Environmental Observation Network Cape Town South Africa

Gabon Biodiversity Program Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute Center for Conservation and Sustainability Gamba Gabon

Gantz Family Collection Center Field Museum of Natural History Chicago USA

Genetics University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa

Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Giraffe Conservation Foundation Windhoek Namibia

Grasslands Forests Wetlands Node of the South African Environmental Observation Network Pietermaritzburg South Africa

Harrison Institute Sevenoaks Kent United Kingdom

Harvey Ecological Howick South Africa

Hazi Foundation Arcaute Spain

Helsinki Lab of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Herpetology Museum für Naturkunde Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science Berlin Germany

Hirola Conservation Programme Garissa Kenya

Independent Cape Town South Africa

Independent Gaborone Botswana

Independent researcher London United Kingdom

Indigenous Woodland Strategy Area Forestry Research Institute of Malawi Zomba Malawi

Institut de Recherches Agronomiques et Forestières Libreville Gabon

Institut de Systématique Evolution Biodiversité Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle CNRS Sorbonne Université EPHE Université des Antilles Paris France

Institut de Systématique Evolution Biodiversité Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Paris France

Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Institute of Biodiversity One Health and Veterinary Medicine University of Glasgow Glasgow Scotland United Kingdom

Institute of Biosciences Department of Botany University of Rostock Rostock Germany

Institute of Environmental Sciences Faculty of Technology and Sciences University Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar Dakar Sénégal

Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology Universität Hamburg Hamburg Germany

Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Brno Czech Republic

Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London London United Kingdom

Kalahari Research and Conservation Botswana Botswana

KBA Secretariat c o BirdLife International Cambridge United Kingdom

Kigelia Solutions Lusaka Zambia

Laboratoire d'Ecologie de Botanique et de Biologie végétale University of Parakou Parakou Benin

Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique IRD CNRS UPS Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier Toulouse cedex 9 France

Laboratory of Applied Ecology University of Abomey Calavi Abomey Calavi Benin

Landscape Conservation Programme BirdLife South Africa Johannesburg South Africa

LIB Museum Koenig Bonn Germany

Mammal Research Institute Centre for Invasion Biology Department of Zoology and Entomology University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Mammal Research Institute Department of Zoology and Entomology University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Mammalogy Department Durban Natural Science Museum Durban South Africa

Mammalogy Section Department of Zoology National Museums of Kenya Nairobi Kenya

MECADEV CNRS MNHN Département Adaptations du Vivant Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée Paris France

Moore Ecological Analysis and Management LLC Gainesville USA

Natural habitats and biodiversity management University Félix Houphouet Boigny Abidjan Côte d'Ivoire

Nature Management University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland Geneva Jussy Switzerland

Nature Tanzania Arusha Tanzania

Nature Uganda Kampala Uganda

Ndlovu Node of the South African Environmental Observation Network Phalaborwa South Africa

Negaunee Integrative Research Center The Field Museum Chicago United States of America

NWU Botanical Garden School of Biological Sciences North West University Potchefstroom South Africa

Office Ivoirien des Parcs et Réserves Soubré Côte d'Ivoire

Okavango Research Institute University of Botswana Maun Botswana

Organisation pour le Développement Durable et la Biodiversité Cotonou Benin

Ornithology Section Zoology Department National Museums of Kenya Nairobi Kenya

Panthera New York USA

Plant Ecology University of Bayreuth Bayreuth Germany

Primatology Center for Research in Ecology and Forestry Bikoro Democratic Republic of the Congo

Research and Conservation Oppenheimer Generations Parktown Johannesburg South Africa

Researcher Conflict and Environmental Observatory Manchester United Kingdom

Restoration Ecology Technische Universität München Freising Germany

Richtersveld Desert Botanical Gardens Richtersveld National Park SANParks Sendelingsdrift South Africa

ROC USA Concord USA

SARChI Research Chair on Biodiversity Value and Change University of Venda Thohoyandou South Africa

School of Animal Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa

School of Applied Sciences Edinburgh Napier University Edinburgh Scotland UK

School of Biology and Environmental Science University of Mpumalanga Mbombela South Africa

School of Geography and the Environment Environmental Change Institute University of Oxford Oxford United Kingdom

School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Durban South Africa

School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Scottsville South Africa

School of Natural Resource Management Nelson Mandela University George South Africa

Scientific Services South African National Parks Skukuza South Africa

Scientific Services Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority Harare Zimbabwe

Small Mammal Conservation Organization Benin City Nigeria

South African National Biodiversity Institute Cape Town South Africa

Species and Sites Program Nature Kenya Nairobi Kenya

Stockholm Resilience Centre Stockholm University Stockholm Sweden

Tau Consultants Ltd Maun Botswana

UFR Environnement Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Tropicale Université Jean Lorougnon Guédé Daloa Côte d'Ivoire

UFR Sciences de la Nature Universite NanguiI Abrogoua Abidjan Côte d'Ivoire

Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management North West University Potchefstroom South Africa

Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences Appliquées et Technologies Université de Dédougou Dédougou Burkina Faso

University of Edinburgh Edinburgh Scotland UK

Wildlife Conservation Ecology Research Group CIBIO InBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos Universidade do Porto Vairã Portugal

Wildlife Conservation Society Bronx USA

Wildlife Conservation Solutions Mkuze South Africa

York institute for Tropical Ecosystems University of York York United Kingdom

Zoology and Entomology University of the Free State Qwaqwa campus Phuthaditjhaba South Africa

Zoology Entomology and Fisheries Sciences Makerere University Kampala Uganda

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Steffen W, Broadgate W, Deutsch L, Gaffney O, Ludwig C. The trajectory of the anthropocene: The great acceleration. Anthr. Rev. 2015;2:81–98.

Watson JEM, Venter O. Mapping the continuum of humanity’s footprint on land. One Earth. 2019;1:175–180. doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2019.09.004. DOI

Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM, Watson JEM. Biodiversity: The ravages of guns, nets and bulldozers. Nature. 2016;536:143–145. doi: 10.1038/536143a. PubMed DOI

Dullinger I, et al. Biodiversity models need to represent land-use intensity more comprehensively. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2021;30:924–932. doi: 10.1111/geb.13289. DOI

IPBES. Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. (Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem services, Bonn, Germany, 2019).

Mace GM, et al. Approaches to defining a planetary boundary for biodiversity. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2014;28:289–297.

Steffen W, et al. Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science. 2015;347:1259855. doi: 10.1126/science.1259855. PubMed DOI

Manning P, et al. Redefining ecosystem multifunctionality. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2018;2:427–436. doi: 10.1038/s41559-017-0461-7. PubMed DOI

Otu A, et al. Africa needs to prioritize One Health approaches that focus on the environment, animal health and human health. Nat. Med. 2021;27:943–946. doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01375-w. PubMed DOI

Reyers B, Selig ER. Global targets that reveal the social–ecological interdependencies of sustainable development. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2020;4:1011–1019. doi: 10.1038/s41559-020-1230-6. PubMed DOI

Mace GM, et al. Aiming higher to bend the curve of biodiversity loss. Nat. Sustain. 2018;1:448–451. doi: 10.1038/s41893-018-0130-0. DOI

Soto-Navarro CA, et al. Towards a multidimensional biodiversity index for national application. Nat. Sustain. 2021;4:933–942. doi: 10.1038/s41893-021-00753-z. DOI

Hortal J, et al. Seven Shortfalls that Beset Large-Scale Knowledge of Biodiversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2015;46:523–549. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054400. DOI

Stephenson PJ, Stengel C. An inventory of biodiversity data sources for conservation monitoring. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0242923. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242923. PubMed DOI PMC

Tydecks L, Jeschke JM, Wolf M, Singer G, Tockner K. Spatial and topical imbalances in biodiversity research. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0199327. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199327. PubMed DOI PMC

McRae L, Deinet S, Freeman R. The diversity-weighted living planet index: Controlling for taxonomic bias in a global biodiversity indicator. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0169156. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169156. PubMed DOI PMC

McNellie MJ, et al. Reference state and benchmark concepts for better biodiversity conservation in contemporary ecosystems. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2020;26:6702–6714. doi: 10.1111/gcb.15383. PubMed DOI PMC

Schipper A, et al. Projecting terrestrial biodiversity intactness with GLOBIO 4. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2020;26:760–771. doi: 10.1111/gcb.14848. PubMed DOI PMC

Tittensor DP, et al. A mid-term analysis of progress toward international biodiversity targets. Science. 2014;346:241–248. doi: 10.1126/science.1257484. PubMed DOI

Newbold T, et al. Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature. 2015;520:45–50. doi: 10.1038/nature14324. PubMed DOI

Oliver TH, et al. Declining resilience of ecosystem functions under biodiversity loss. Nat. Commun. 2015;6:1–8. doi: 10.1038/ncomms10122. PubMed DOI PMC

Hudson LN, et al. The database of the PREDICTS (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems) project. Ecol. Evol. 2016;4:4701–4735. doi: 10.1002/ece3.1303. PubMed DOI PMC

Stephenson PJ, et al. Unblocking the flow of biodiversity data for decision-making in Africa. Biol. Conserv. 2017;213:335–340. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.003. DOI

IPBES. The IPBES regional assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services for Africa. (Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem services, Bonn, Germany, 2018).

Hemming V, Burgman MA, Hanea AM, McBride MF, Wintle BC. A practical guide to structured expert elicitation using the IDEA protocol. Methods Ecol. Evol. 2018;9:169–180. doi: 10.1111/2041-210X.12857. DOI

IUCN. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2022-1. (2022).

Pörtner, H.-O. et al. Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2022).

Scholes RJ, Biggs R. A biodiversity intactness index. Nature. 2005;434:45–49. doi: 10.1038/nature03289. PubMed DOI

Newbold T, et al. Has land use pushed terrestrial biodiversity beyond the planetary boundary? A global assessment. Science. 2016;351:600–604. PubMed

Martin PA, Green RE, Balmford A. The biodiversity intactness index may underestimate losses. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2019;3:862–863. doi: 10.1038/s41559-019-0895-1. PubMed DOI

Trisos CH, Auerbach J, Katti M. Decoloniality and anti-oppressive practices for a more ethical ecology. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2021;5:1205–1212. doi: 10.1038/s41559-021-01460-w. PubMed DOI

Krueger T, Page T, Hubacek K, Smith L, Hiscock K. The role of expert opinion in environmental modelling. Environ. Model. Softw. 2012;36:4–18.

de Bello F, et al. Towards an assessment of multiple ecosystem processes and services via functional traits. Biodivers. Conserv. 2010;19:2873–2893. doi: 10.1007/s10531-010-9850-9. DOI

Archibald S, Hempson GP, Lehmann C. A unified framework for plant life-history strategies shaped by fire and herbivory. New Phytol. 2019;224:1490–1503. doi: 10.1111/nph.15986. PubMed DOI

Clements HS, 2023. Faunal and floral population intactness estimates across sub-Saharan African land uses: The bii4africa dataset. figshare. PubMed DOI PMC

Olson DM, et al. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. Bioscience. 2001;51:933. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2. DOI

Armani, M. et al. Enhancing climate change adaptation and mitigation actions on land in Africa. (Future Ecosystems for Africa, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2022).

Sankaran M, et al. Determinants of woody cover in African savannas. Nature. 2005;438:846–849. doi: 10.1038/nature04070. PubMed DOI

White, F. The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO. Nat. Resour. Res.20, 1–356 (1983).

Ellis EC, Beusen AHW, Goldewijk KK. Anthropogenic biomes: 10,000 BCE to 2015 CE. Land. 2020;9:8–10. doi: 10.3390/land9050129. DOI

Goldewijk KK, Beusen A, Doelman J, Stehfest E. Anthropogenic land use estimates for the Holocene - HYDE 3.2. Earth Syst. Sci. Data. 2017;9:927–953.

Hurtt G, et al. Harmonization of Global Land-Use Change and Management for the Period 850–2100 (LUH2) for CMIP6. Geosci. Model Dev. 2020;13:5425–5464. doi: 10.5194/gmd-13-5425-2020. DOI

Alkemade R, et al. GLOBIO3: A framework to investigate options for reducing global terrestrial biodiversity loss. Ecosystems. 2009;12:374–390. doi: 10.1007/s10021-009-9229-5. DOI

Prins, H. H. & de Jong, J. F. The Ecohistory of Tanzania’s Northern Rift Valley – Can One Establish an Objective Baseline as an Endpoint for Ecosystem Restoration? in Tarangire: Human-Wildlife Coexistence in a Fragmented Ecosystem 129–161 (Springer International Publishing, 2022).

Balme GA, Slotow R, Hunter LTB. Edge effects and the impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservation: leopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex, South Africa. Anim. Conserv. 2010;13:315–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00342.x. DOI

Neuschulz EL, Botzat A, Farwig N. Effects of forest modification on bird community composition and seed removal in a heterogeneous landscape in South Africa. Oikos. 2011;120:1371–1379. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19097.x. DOI

Farwig N, Sajita N, Böhning-Gaese K. Conservation value of forest plantations for bird communities in western Kenya. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008;255:3885–3892. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.03.042. DOI

Pesaresi M, Politis P. GHS-BUILT-S R2023A - GHS built-up surface grid, derived from Sentinel2 composite and Landsat, multitemporal (1975–2030) Joint Research Centre Data Catalogue. 2023 doi: 10.2905/9F06F36F-4B11-47EC-ABB0-4F8B7B1D72EA. DOI

Schiavina M, Freire S, Carioli A, MacManus K. GHS-POP R2023A - GHS population grid multitemporal (1975–2030) . Joint Research Centre Data Catalogue. 2023 doi: 10.2905/2FF68A52-5B5B-4A22-8F40-C41DA8332CFE. DOI

Potapov P, et al. Global maps of cropland extent and change show accelerated cropland expansion in the twenty-first century. Nat. Food. 2022;3:19–28. doi: 10.1038/s43016-021-00429-z. PubMed DOI

Lu C, Tian H. Global nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer use for agriculture production in the past half century: Shifted hot spots and nutrient imbalance. Earth Syst. Sci. Data. 2017;9:181–192.

Lesiv M, et al. Estimating the global distribution of field size using crowdsourcing. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2019;25:174–186. doi: 10.1111/gcb.14492. PubMed DOI PMC

Gilbert M, et al. Global distribution data for cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and ducks in 2010. Sci. Data. 2018;5:1–11. doi: 10.1038/sdata.2018.227. PubMed DOI PMC

Keith DA, et al. The IUCN red list of ecosystems: Motivations, challenges, and applications. Conserv. Lett. 2015;8:214–226. doi: 10.1111/conl.12167. DOI

Jetz W, et al. Essential biodiversity variables for mapping and monitoring species populations. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2019;3:539–551. doi: 10.1038/s41559-019-0826-1. PubMed DOI

Hill, S. L. L. et al. The Ecosystem Integrity Index: a novel measure of terrestrial ecosystem integrity with global coverage. bioRxiv 2022.08 (2022).

Hansen AJ, et al. Towards monitoring forest ecosystem integrity within the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Conserv. Lett. 2021;14:e12822. doi: 10.1111/conl.12822. DOI

Laurance WF, Sloan S, Weng L, Sayer JA. Estimating the Environmental Costs of Africa’s Massive ‘Development Corridors’. Curr. Biol. 2015;25:3202–3208. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.10.046. PubMed DOI

Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, Harris JA. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2009;24:599–605. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.012. PubMed DOI

Di Marco M, et al. Projecting impacts of global climate and land-use scenarios on plant biodiversity using compositional-turnover modelling. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2019;25:2763–2778. doi: 10.1111/gcb.14663. PubMed DOI

Harfoot MBJ, et al. Emergent Global Patterns of Ecosystem Structure and Function from a Mechanistic General Ecosystem Model. PLoS Biol. 2014;12:e1001841. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001841. PubMed DOI PMC

The bii4africa dataset of faunal and floral population intactness estimates across Africa's major land uses