Microplastics (MPs) are widespread contaminants in aquatic ecosystems and pose significant threats to both organisms and the environment. Their small size, high surface area, and capacity to adsorb toxic chemicals allow MPs to infiltrate food webs, affecting organisms across trophic levels. This review explores the intricate mechanisms by which MPs induce reproductive and endocrine toxicity, focusing on their physical and chemical properties, bioaccumulation dynamics, and associated molecular pathways. MPs interfere with hormonal homeostasis, oxidative stress responses, and apoptotic pathways, leading to disruptions in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, impaired steroidogenesis, and gonadal dysfunction. These effects manifest as reduced fertility, altered gametogenesis, and multigenerational reproductive impairments across diverse aquatic taxa. Furthermore, MPs serve as carriers for endocrine-disrupting chemicals, compounding their adverse effects on organisms and aquatic biodiversity. Through a synthesis of recent research, this review identifies key signaling pathways, including MAPK, PI3K-AKT, mTOR, NF-κB, PPAR and NLRP3 inflammasome, that may play a role in MP-induced reproductive toxicity. The findings underscore the urgent need for advanced mitigation strategies, regulatory frameworks, and further research to combat the ecological consequences of MP pollution. Prioritizing targeted interventions is essential to safeguard aquatic biodiversity and ensure ecosystem resilience against the pervasive threat of MPs.

Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology Department of Physiological Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA

Department of Aquatic Environment and Resource Management Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science Sher e Bangla Agricultural University Dhaka 1207 Bangladesh; University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters České Budějovice 370 05 Czech Republic

Department of Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK S7N 5E2 Canada

Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences School of Veterinary Medicine Louisiana State University Skip Bertman Drive Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA

Department of Science and Environmental Studies The Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po New Territories Hong Kong 999077 China

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