Recent research has shown that climate change can both induce and modulate the expression of plastic traits but our understanding of the role of phenotypic plasticity as an adaptive response to climate change is limited. In this review, we dissect the mechanisms and impact of phenotypic plasticity as a response to accumulating climatic pressures on the individual, species and community levels. (i) We discuss how plasticity can affect individuals, populations and community dynamics and how climate change can alter the role of plasticity. We hypothesise that some pathways to phenotypic plasticity such as irreversible and anticipatory organismal responses will be reduced under increasing climate change. (ii) We then propose an integrated conceptual framework for studying phenotypic plasticity to advance our understanding of the feedbacks between the different levels of biological organisation. (iii) By formulating as yet unaddressed research questions within and across levels of biological organisation, we aim to instigate new research on phenotypic plasticity and its role in climate change responses.

Animal Ecology and BayCEER University of Bayreuth Universitaetsstrasse 30 Bayreuth 95447 Germany

Aquatic Biology IRF Life Sciences KU Leuven E Sabbelaan 53 Kortrijk 8500 Belgium

Aquatic Ecology Department Eawag Überlandstrasse 133 Dübendorf CH 8600 Switzerland

Associate Laboratory i4HB Institute for Health and Bioeconomy NOVA School of Science and Technology NOVA University Lisbon Caparica 2819 516 Portugal

Biology Centre Institute of Entomology Czech Academy of Sciences Branišovská 31 České Budějovice 370 05 Czech Republic

Department of Biology School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Queen Mary University of London Mile End Rd London E1 4NS UK

Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Modelling University of Potsdam Am Neuen Palais 10 Potsdam 14469 Germany

Department of Ecosystems Biology Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia Branišovská 31a České Budějovice 370 05 Czech Republic

Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture Nord University Bodø N 8049 Norway

Fish Ecology and Evolution Department Eawag Seestrasse 79 Kastanienbaum CH 6047 Switzerland

INRAE Aix Marseille Univ UMR RECOVER Aix en Provence 13182 France

Institute of Biology Freie Universität Berlin Köningin Louise Strasse 1 3 Berlin 14195 Germany

Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology KU Leuven Ch Deberiotstraat 32 Leuven 3000 Belgium

Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology Evolution and Conservation KU Leuven Ch Deberiotstraat 32 Leuven 3000 Belgium

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Müggelseedamm 310 Berlin 12587 Germany

UCIBIO Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit Department of Life Sciences NOVA School of Science and Technology NOVA University Lisbon Caparica 2819 516 Portugal

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