Pollinators receive considerable interest due to their fundamental role in ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Unlike farmlands, studies of urban pollinator-promoting interventions are scarce and have not been synthesised, hampering policy implementation. To fill this gap, we compared pollinator-promoting interventions (treatment) with conventionally managed (control) sites regarding vegetation, floral resources, and pollinators. Our synthesis investigated 1051 sampling sites with different interventions (abandonment, extensive mowing, flower sowing, and combined practices) and habitats (parks, grasslands, road verges, private and public gardens) from 28 European datasets at pooled- and study-levels. Urban pollinator-promoting interventions generally benefited plants and pollinators with taxon, intervention, habitat, and spatio-temporal specific differences. Pooled analyses showed mostly positive and never negative treatment effects, while study-level details described primarily positive and neutral but rarely negative effects. Bumblebees and butterflies benefited most from the interventions. Some effects were stronger for interventions involving flower sowing, interventions occurring in road verges, and interventions located in Northwestern Europe. Although regulations, guidelines, and monitoring are improving, knowledge gaps remain for some pollinator taxa (e.g., beetles), regions (e.g., Mediterranean), and novel interventions (e.g., for ground-nesting insects). Further collaborative studies from around the world could help cities bring people, plants, and pollinators together by creating resilient, multi-functional urban spaces.

Agricultural Landscapes and Biodiversity Agroscope Zürich Switzerland

Biodiversity Conservation Laboratory Department of Biological Applications and Technology University of Ioannina Ioannina Greece

Chair of Restoration Ecology TUM School of Life Sciences Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment University of Padova Legnaro Italy

Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Ecology Biocenter University of Würzburg Würzburg Germany

Department of Biology University of Patras Patras Greece

Department of Ecology and Evolution School of Life Sciences University of Sussex Brighton UK

Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden

Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection University of Lodz Lodz Poland

Department of Zoology and Ecology Institute of Wildlife Management and Nature Conservation Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences Gödöllő Hungary

Department of Zoology Poznań University of Life Sciences Poznań Poland

Dr Unterweger Biodiversitätsplanung Wain Germany

Environment and Sustainability Institute University of Exeter Penryn UK

Faculty of Biology University of Belgrade Belgrade Serbia

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Science University of Hradec Králové Hradec Králové Czech Republic

Human and Biodiversity Research Group Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning Technion Israel Institute of Technology Haifa Israel

INRAE Lae University of Lorraine Nancy France

Institute of Environmental Science and Geography University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany

Institute of Evolution and Ecology Evolutionary Biology of Invertebrates University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

Integrated Land Management Scotland's Rural College Ayr UK

Laboratoire Image Ville Environnement CNRS UMR 7362 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France

Lendület Ecosystem Services Research Group Institute of Ecology and Botany HUN REN Centre for Ecological Research Vácrátót Hungary

Nature Based Solutions Research Centre University of Derby Derby UK

Patrinat and UMR7204 OFB MNHN CNRS IRD Paris France

Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group Wageningen University Wageningen the Netherlands

School of Architecture and Landscape University of Sheffield Sheffield UK

School of Biological Sciences University of East Anglia Norwich UK

Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Birmensdorf Switzerland

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