This minireview describes recent advances in high-tech innovations on virtual reality (VR) aiding physical and cognitive recovery from neuromuscular disorders, notably useful for post-stroke rehabilitation. VR is a computer-generated technique that engulfs users in 3D multisensory interactive feedback. This technique creates simulations of realistic situations that can be manipulated by a user. It provides a spectrum of benefits in both physical and cognitive rehabilitation in the wake of neuromuscular episodes. VR engages and motivates patients to endure the unpleasant sequela of disease. Further, it enhances the acquisition of rehabilitative skills by caregivers and trains them in psychophysical health preservation. The benefits and user-friendliness of VR make it an increasingly welcome assistive neurological therapy tool. However, VR standardization, mechanisms, and, particularly, the long-term effects appear not to keep pace with its popularity and fast-progressing technical advances. Evidence-based studies on large groups of individuals are needed to settle these issues.

Institute of Health Sciences Opole University Katowicka 68 St 45 060 Opole Poland

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Cipresso P, Giglioli IAC, Raya MA, Riva G. The past, present, and future of virtual and augmented reality research: a network and cluster analysis of the literature. Front Psychol. 2018;9:2086. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02086. PubMed DOI PMC

Li Xinrong, Liu Dongfeng, Zhang Xiangyu. A system integrated with C# programming and real-time 3D observation for learning virtual reality technology. Open J Soc Sci. 2019;7:3.

Stauffert J-P, Niebling F, Latoschik ME. Latency and cybersickness: impact, causes, and measures. A review. Front Virtual Real. 2020;1:582204. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2020.582204. DOI

Kim J, Chung CYL, Nakamura S, Palmisano S, Khuu SK. The Oculus Rift: a cost-effective tool for studying visual-vestibular interactions in self-motion perception. Front Psychol. 2015;6:248. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00248. PubMed DOI PMC

Hudise JY, Mojiri ME, Shawish AM, Majrashi KA, Ayoub AY, Alshammakhi AM, Akoor FA, et al. The role of virtual reality in advancing surgical training in otolaryngology: a systematic review. Cureus. 2024;16(10):e71222. doi: 10.7759/cureus.71222. PubMed DOI PMC

Palmisano S, Allison RS, Teixeira J, Kim J. Differences in virtual and physical head orientation predict sickness during active head-mounted display-based virtual reality. Virtual Real. 2023;27(2):1293–1313. doi: 10.1007/s10055-022-00732-5. PubMed DOI PMC

Rahimian P, Plumert JM, Kearney JK. The effect of visuomotor latency on steering behavior in virtual reality. Front Virtual Real. 2021;2:727858. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2021.727858. DOI

Kern AC, Ellermeier W. Audio in VR: effects of a soundscape and movement-triggered step sounds on presence. Front Robot AI. 2020;7:20. doi: 10.3389/frobt.2020.00020. PubMed DOI PMC

Mao RQ, Lan L, Kay J, Lohre R, Ayeni OR, Goel DP, Sa D. Immersive virtual reality for surgical training: a systematic review. J Surg Res. 2021;268:40–58. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2021.06.045. PubMed DOI

Gallagher AG, Ritter EM, Champion H, Higgins G, Fried MP, Moses G, Smith CD, Satava RM. Virtual reality simulation for the operating room: proficiency-based training as a paradigm shift in surgical skills training. Ann Surg. 2005;241(2):364–372. doi: 10.1097/01.sla.0000151982.85062.80. PubMed DOI PMC

Heo S, Park J-H. Effects of virtual reality-based graded exposure therapy on PTSD symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(23):15911. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192315911. PubMed DOI PMC

Boeldt D, McMahon E, McFaul M, Greenleaf W. Using virtual reality exposure therapy to enhance treatment of anxiety disorders: identifying areas of clinical adoption and potential obstacles. Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:773. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00773. PubMed DOI PMC

Dopsaj M, Tan W, Perovic V, Stajic Z, Milosavljevic N, Paessler S, Makishima T. Novel neurodigital interface reduces motion sickness in virtual reality. Neurosci Lett. 2024;825:137692. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137692. PubMed DOI

Akiduki H, Nishiike S, Watanabe H, Matsuoka K, Kubo T, Takeda N. Visual-vestibular conflict induced by virtual reality in humans. Neurosci Lett. 2003;340(3):197–200. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(03)00098-3. PubMed DOI

Huang C, Shi N, Miao Y, Chen X, Wang Y, Gao X. Visual tracking brain-computer interface. iScience. 2024;27(4):109376. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109376. PubMed DOI PMC

Li K, Schmidt S, Rolff T, Bacher R, Leemans W, Steinicke F. Magic NeRF lens: interactive fusion of neural radiance fields for virtual facility inspection. Front Virtual Real. 2024;5:1377245. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2024.1377245. DOI

Deng N, He Z, Ye J, Duinkharjav B, Chakravarthula P, Yang X, Sun Q. FoV-NeRF: Foveated neural radiance fields for virtual reality. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph. 2022;28(11):3854–3864. doi: 10.1109/TVCG.2022.3203102. PubMed DOI

Liang S, Cao W, Zhuang Y, Zhang D, Du S, Shi H. Suppression of microRNA-320 induces cerebral protection against ischemia/reperfusion injury by targeting HMGB1/NF-kappaB axis. Physiol Res. 2024;73(1):127–138. doi: 10.33549/physiolres.935081. PubMed DOI PMC

Svoboda J, Litvinec A, Kala D, Pošusta A, Vávrová L, Jiruška P, Otáhal J. Strain differences in intraluminal thread model of middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. Physiol Res. 2019;68(1):37–48. doi: 10.33549/physiolres.933958. PubMed DOI

Li H, Cui1 W, Tang T, Dai B. Ginsenoside-MC1 alleviates stroke by modulating AMPK/SIRT1 pathway in a rat model. Physiol Res. 2024;73:553–564. doi: 10.33549/physiolres.935263. DOI

De Miguel-Rubio A, Alba-Rueda A, Millán-Salguero EM, De Miguel-Rubio MD, Moral-Munoz JA, Lucena-Anton D. Virtual reality for upper limb rehabilitation in patients with obstetric brachial palsy: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Med Internet Res. 2023;25:e47391. doi: 10.2196/47391. PubMed DOI PMC

Xu S, Xu Y, Wen R, Wang J, Qiu Y, Chan CCH. Virtual reality enhanced exercise training in upper limb function of patients with stroke: meta-analytic study. J Med Internet Res. 2025;27:e66802. doi: 10.2196/66802. PubMed DOI PMC

Okamura R, Nakashima A, Moriuchi T, Fujiwara K, Ohno K, Higashi T, Tomori K. Effects of a virtual reality-based mirror therapy system on upper extremity rehabilitation after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Neurol. 2024;14:1298291. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1298291. PubMed DOI PMC

Kiper P, Godart N, Cavalier M, Berard C, Cieślik B, Federico S, Kiper A, Pellicciari L, Meroni R. Effects of immersive virtual reality on upper-extremity stroke rehabilitation: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2023;13(1):146. doi: 10.3390/jcm13010146. PubMed DOI PMC

Huo Y, Wang X, Zhao W, Hu H, Li L. Effects of EMG-based robot for upper extremity rehabilitation on post-stroke patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol. 2023;14:1172958. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1172958. PubMed DOI PMC

Marin-Pardo O, Laine CM, Rennie M, Ito KL, Finley J, Liew SL. A virtual reality muscle-computer interface for neurorehabilitation in chronic stroke: a pilot study. Sensors (Basel) 2020;20(13):3754. doi: 10.3390/s20133754. PubMed DOI PMC

Lee SJ, Chun MH. Combination transcranial direct current stimulation and virtual reality therapy for upper extremity training in patients with subacute stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2014;95(3):431–438. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2013.10.027. PubMed DOI

Zhang B, Li D, Liu Y, Wang J, Xiao Q. Virtual reality for limb motor function, balance, gait, cognition and daily function of stroke patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Adv Nurs. 2021;77(8):3255–3273. doi: 10.1111/jan.14800. PubMed DOI

de Rooij IJ, van de Port IG, Meijer JG. Effect of virtual reality training on balance and gait ability in patients with stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. Phys Ther. 2016;96(12):1905–1918. doi: 10.2522/ptj.20160054. PubMed DOI

Chen J, Yan S, Yin H, Lin D, Mei Z, Ding Z, Wang M, Bai Y, Xu G. Virtual reality technology improves the gait and balance function of the elderly: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Med Sci. 2024;20(6):1918–1929. doi: 10.5114/aoms/186353. PubMed DOI PMC

Victor BARA, Angel IS, Kumar BG. Enhancing dynamic balance and postural stability in stroke patients: the impact of immersive virtual reality training. Cureus. 2024;16(8):e66299. doi: 10.7759/cureus.66299. PubMed DOI PMC

Reneural Co. DigitalHealth. VR stroke rehabilitation platform awarded NHS England funding. [Accessed on 5 May 2025]. https://www.digitalhealth.net/2025/03/vr-stroke-rehabilitation-platform-awarded-nhs-england-funding/

Faria AL, Latorre J, Silva Cameirão M, Bermúdez I, Badia S, Llorens R. Ecologically valid virtual reality-based technologies for assessment and rehabilitation of acquired brain injury: a systematic review. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1233346. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1233346. PubMed DOI PMC

Maggio MG, Corallo F, De Francesco M, De Cola MC, De Luca R, Manuli A, Quartarone A, Rizzo A, Calabrò RS. Understanding the family burden and caregiver role in stroke rehabilitation: insights from a retrospective study. Neurol Sci. 2024;45(11):5347–5353. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07668-5. PubMed DOI PMC

Amin F, Waris A, Iqbal J, Gilani SO, Zia Ur Rehman M, Mushtag S, Khan NR, Khan MI, Jameel M, Tamam N. Maximizing stroke recovery with advanced technologies: a comprehensive assessment of robot-assisted, EMG-Controlled robotics, virtual reality, and mirror therapy interventions. Results in Engineering. 2024;21:101725. doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101725. DOI

Michigan Medicine. Using virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation. [Accessed on 6 May 2025]. https://www.michiganmedicine.org/health-lab/using-virtual-reality-stroke-rehabilitation .

Nguyen AV, Ong YA, Luo CX, Thuraisingam T, Rubino M, Levin MF, Kaizer F, Archambault PS. Virtual reality exergaming as adjunctive therapy in a sub-acute stroke rehabilitation setting: facilitators and barriers. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol. 2019;14(4):317–324. doi: 10.1080/17483107.2018.1447608. PubMed DOI

UNSW Sydney. Tyree Foundation Institute of Health Engineering. Virtual Reality for Stroke Rehab. [Accessed on 5 May 2025]. https://www.ihealthe.unsw.edu.au/virtual-reality-stroke-rehab .

Difede J, Cukor J, Jayasinghe N, Patt I, Jedel S, Spielman L, Giosan C, Hoffman HG. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following September 11, 2001. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(11):1639–1647. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v68n1102. PubMed DOI

Rashmithanath Nagasani, Rani GS, Sreedevi P, Prasuna M. Relationship between self-reliance and psychological well-being among adolescents. Biol Forum. 2023;15(10):1236–1239.

Cheng TC, Huang SF, Wu SY, Lin FG, Lin WS, Tsai PY. Integration of virtual reality into transcranial magnetic stimulation improves cognitive function in patients with Parkinson’s disease with cognitive impairment: a proof-of-concept study. J Parkinsons Dis. 2022;12(2):723–736. doi: 10.3233/JPD-212978. PubMed DOI

Aderinto N, AbdulBasit MO, Olatunji G, Adejumo T. Exploring the transformative influence of neuroplasticity on stroke rehabilitation: a narrative review of current evidence. Ann Med Surg. 2023;85:4425–4442. doi: 10.1097/MS9.0000000000001137. DOI

Everard G, Burton Q, Van de Sype V, Ntabuhashe Bibentyo T, Auvinet E, Edwards MG, Batcho CS, Batcho CS, Lejeune T. Extended reality to assess post-stroke manual dexterity: contrasts between the classic box and block test, immersive virtual reality with controllers, with hand-tracking, and mixed-reality tests. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2024;21(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s12984-024-01332-x. PubMed DOI PMC

Hernández-Martínez A, Fernandez-Escabias M, Amaya-Pascasio L, Carrilho-Candeias S, Ramos-Teodoro M, Gil-Rodríguez M, Orellana-Jaen A, et al. Evaluation of the effects of a gamified, fully immersive and stroke-specific virtual reality intervention for improving disability and quality of life in patients with stroke in the subacute phase: study protocol of the RESET randomised trial. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2024;10(3):e002123. doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002123. DOI

Bui J, Luauté J, Farnè A. Enhancing upper limb rehabilitation of stroke patients with virtual reality: a mini review. Front Virtual Real. 2021;2:595771. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2021.595771. DOI

Moraresku S, Vlcek K. The use of egocentric and allocentric reference frames in static and dynamic conditions in humans. Physiol Res. 2020;69(5):787–801. doi: 10.33549/physiolres.934528. PubMed DOI PMC

Corvini M, Wang J, Arthanat S. Enhancing dementia care in rural communities: a tele-rehabilitative approach through community-centered technology integration. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;20(Suppl 4):e087932. doi: 10.1002/alz.087932. DOI

Tychsen L, Thio LL. Concern of photosensitive seizures evoked by 3D video displays or virtual reality headsets in children: current perspective. Eye Brain. 2020;12:45–48. doi: 10.2147/EB.S233195. PubMed DOI PMC

Benelli A, Neri F, Cinti A, Pasqualetti P, Romanella SM, Giannotta A, De Monte D, et al. Frequency-dependent reduction of cybersickness in virtual reality by transcranial oscillatory stimulation of the vestibular cortex. Neurotherapeutics. 2023;20(6):1796–1807. doi: 10.1007/s13311-023-01437-6. PubMed DOI PMC

Gallagher M, Ferrè ER. Cybersickness: a multisensory integration perspective. Multisens Res. 2018;31(7):645–674. doi: 10.1163/22134808-20181293. PubMed DOI

Reda AS, Glikstein R, Tsehmaister-Abitbul V, Flaxman T, La Russa DJ, Portela de Oliveira E. Virtual reality visualization of an epidermoid cyst causing intracranial hypertension. Can J Neurol Sci. 2023;27:1–2. doi: 10.1017/cjn.2023.305. DOI

Winstein CJ, Stein J, Arena R, Bates B, Cherney LR, Cramer SC, Deruyter F, et al. on behalf of the American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Guidelines for Adult Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2016;47(6):e98–e169. doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000098. PubMed DOI

AVERT Trial Collaboration group. Efficacy and safety of very early mobilisation within 24 h of stroke onset (AVERT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;386(9988):46–55. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60690-0. PubMed DOI

Chau JPC, Lo SHS, Lau AYL, Lee VWY, Choi KC, Kwok ECF, Thompson DR. Effects of a social participation-focused virtual reality intervention for community-dwelling stroke survivors with physical disabilities: a randomised controlled trial protocol. BMJ Open. 2022;12(7):e061069. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-061069. DOI

Best JR, Eng JJ, Davis JC, Hsiung R, Hall PA, Middleton LE, Graf P, et al. Study protocol for vitality: a proof-of-concept randomised controlled trial of exercise training or complex mental and social activities to promote cognition in adults with chronic stroke. BMJ Open. 2018;8(3):e021490. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021490. DOI

De Luca R, Bonanno M, Marra A, Rifici C, Pollicino P, Caminiti A, Castorina MV, et al. Can virtual reality cognitive rehabilitation improve executive functioning and coping strategies in traumatic brain injury? A pilot study. Brain Sci. 2023;13(4):578. doi: 10.3390/brainsci13040578. PubMed DOI PMC

Ciekanowska A, Kiszczak-Gliński A, Dziedzic K. Comparative analysis of Unity and Unreal Engine efficiency in creating virtual exhibitions of 3D scanned models. J Comput Sci Inst. 2021;20:247–253. doi: 10.35784/jcsi.2698. DOI

Blanton S, Clark PC, Cotsonis G, Dunbar SB. Factors associated with depressive symptoms of care partners of stroke survivors after discharge from rehabilitation therapy. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2020;27(8):590–600. doi: 10.1080/10749357.2020.1738678. PubMed DOI PMC

Chen P, Botticello AL. Spouses of stroke survivors may be at risk for poor cognitive functioning: a cross- sectional population-based study. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2013;20(4):369–378. doi: 10.1310/tsr2004-369. PubMed DOI PMC

Huang N, Tang Y, Zeng P, Guo X, Liu Z. Psychological status on informal carers for stroke survivors at various phases: a cohort study in China. Front Psychiatry. 2023;14:1173062. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1173062. PubMed DOI PMC

Oliveira IJ, Couto GR, Santos RV, Campolargo AM, Lima C, Ferreira PL. Best practice recommendations for dysphagia management in stroke patients: a consensus from a Portuguese expert panel. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2022;31(3):106245. doi: 10.1159/000520505. DOI

Schulz CH, Hersch GI, Foust JL, Wyatt AL, Godwin KM, Virani S, Ostwald SK. Identifying occupational performance barriers of stroke survivors: utilization of a home assessment. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr. 2012;30(1):15–28. doi: 10.3109/02703181.2012.687441. DOI

Nelson M, MacEachern E, Saragosa M. The important role of community organizations in stroke recovery and reintegration. Front Stroke. 2024;3:1430935. doi: 10.3389/fstro.2024.1430935. DOI

Santos P, Faughnan K, Prost C, Tschampl CA. Systemic barriers to care coordination for marginalized and vulnerable populations. J Soc Distress Homeless. 2021;2:234–247. doi: 10.1080/10530789.2021.2021361. DOI

CaregIVR - Cardiovascular health promotion: the impact of immersive virtual reality. Horizon; 2030. [Accessed on 10 March 2025]. https://essatla.pt/investigacao/caregivr-cardiovascular-health-promotion-the-impact-of-immersive-virtual-reality/