Device-based non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques show promise for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders, although inconsistencies in protocol designs and study findings can make the field difficult to navigate. In this Review, we discuss applications of NIBS for enhancing cognitive and motor function in people with various neurological diseases that are characterized by disruption of large-scale brain networks, including neurodegenerative diseases and brain lesion disorders such as stroke and traumatic brain injury. In particular, we focus on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial electrical stimulation, as these techniques have been widely used in clinical settings and randomized controlled trials. We summarize and synthesize current knowledge, and highlight gaps and shortcomings in the existing research that make it difficult to draw firm conclusions, including small sample sizes, heterogeneous patient populations and variations in stimulation protocols. We believe that a rapid evolution of NIBS techniques from state-dependent, network-informed, multifocal and subcortical paradigms to individualized electric field modelling and accelerated NIBS protocols will improve the management of neurological disorders. However, realizing this potential will require us to address crucial challenges and acquire deeper mechanistic insights, with the aim of developing adaptive, biomarker-driven protocols to optimize target engagement, dosing and timing for each patient.

1st Department of Neurology Faculty of Medicine and St Anne's University Hospital Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Applied Neuroscience Research Group Central European Institute of Technology Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Clinical Neuroscience University of Geneva Medical School Geneva Switzerland

Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering INX EPFL Valais Clinique Romande de Réadaptation Sion Switzerland

Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering Neuro 10 Institute Geneva Switzerland

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