Dopamine is a biologically active amine synthesized in the central and peripheral nervous system. This biogenic monoamine acts by activating five types of dopamine receptors (D1-5 Rs), which belong to the G protein-coupled receptor family. Antagonists and partial agonists of D2 Rs are used to treat schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, depression, and anxiety. The typical pharmacophore with high D2 R affinity comprises four main areas, namely aromatic moiety, cyclic amine, central linker and aromatic/heteroaromatic lipophilic fragment. From the literature reviewed herein, we can conclude that 4-(2,3-dichlorophenyl), 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-, 4-(benzo[b]thiophen-4-yl)-1-substituted piperazine, and 4-(6-fluorobenzo[d]isoxazol-3-yl)piperidine moieties are critical for high D2 R affinity. Four to six atoms chains are optimal for D2 R affinity with 4-butoxyl as the most pronounced one. The bicyclic aromatic/heteroaromatic systems are most frequently occurring as lipophilic appendages to retain high D2 R affinity. In this review, we provide a thorough overview of the therapeutic potential of D2 R modulators in the treatment of the aforementioned disorders. In addition, this review summarizes current knowledge about these diseases, with a focus on the dopaminergic pathway underlying these pathologies. Major attention is paid to the structure, function, and pharmacology of novel D2 R ligands, which have been developed in the last decade (2010-2021), and belong to the 1,4-disubstituted aromatic cyclic amine group. Due to the abundance of data, allosteric D2 R ligands and D2 R modulators from patents are not discussed in this review.

• Klíčová slova
• D2 receptor agonist, D2 receptor antagonist, D2 receptor modulators, D2 receptor partial agonist, Parkinson's disease, anxiety, depression, dopamine, dopamine D2 receptor, schizophrenia,
• MeSH
• dopamin * metabolismus   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• ligandy MeSH
• receptory dopaminu D2 * agonisté   metabolismus   MeSH
• receptory spřažené s G-proteiny MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• dopamin * MeSH
• ligandy MeSH
• receptory dopaminu D2 * MeSH
• receptory spřažené s G-proteiny MeSH

Goal-directed behavior has been shown to be affected by consciously and subliminally induced conflicts. Both types of conflict conjointly modulate behavioral performance, but the underlying neuronal mechanisms have remained unclear. While cognitive control is linked to oscillations in the theta frequency band, there are several mechanisms via which theta oscillations may enable cognitive control: via the coordination and synchronization of a large and complex neuronal network and/or via local processes within the medial frontal cortex. We, therefore, investigated this issue with a focus on theta oscillations and the underlying neuronal networks. For this purpose, n = 40 healthy young participants performed a conflict paradigm that combines conscious and subliminal distractors while an EEG was recorded. The data show that separate processes modulate the theta-based activation and organization of cognitive control networks: EEG beamforming analyses showed that variations in theta band power generated in the supplementary motor area reflected the need for control and task-relevant goal shielding, as both conflicts as well as their conjoint effect on behavior increased theta power. Yet, large networks were not modulated by this and graph theoretical analyses of the efficiency (i.e. small worldness) of theta-driven networks did not reflect the need for control. Instead, theta network efficiency was decreased by subliminal conflicts only. This dissociation suggests that while both kinds of conflict require control and goal shielding, which are induced by an increase in theta band power and modulate processes in the medial frontal cortex, only non-conscious conflicts diminish the efficiency of theta-driven large-scale networks.

• Klíčová slova
• EEG, Flanker, Priming, Response conflict, Small world networks, Theta oscillations,
• MeSH
• čelní lalok fyziologie   MeSH
• chování fyziologie   MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• elektroencefalografie metody   MeSH
• exekutivní funkce fyziologie   MeSH
• kognice fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• nervová síť fyziologie   MeSH
• psychomotorický výkon fyziologie   MeSH
• reakční čas fyziologie   MeSH
• theta rytmus EEG fyziologie   MeSH
• vědomí fyziologie   MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

The goal-directed control of behaviour critically depends on emotional regulation and constitutes the basis of mental well-being and social interactions. Within a socioemotional setting, it is necessary to prioritize effectively the relevant emotional information over interfering irrelevant emotional information to orchestrate cognitive resources and achieve appropriate behavior. Currently, it is elusive whether and how different socioemotional stimulus dimensions modulate cognitive control and conflict resolution. Theoretical considerations suggest that interference effects are less detrimental when conflicting emotional information is presented within a "positive socioemotional setting" compared with a "negative socioemotional setting." Using event-related potentials (ERPs) and source localization methods, we examined the basic system neurophysiological mechanisms and functional neuroanatomical structures associated with interactive effects of different interfering facial, socioemotional stimulus dimensions on conflict resolution. We account for interactive effects of different interfering socioemotional stimulus dimensions on conflict resolution, i.e., we show how the socioemotional valence modulates cognitive control (conflict processing). The data show that conflicts are stronger and more difficult to resolve in a negative emotional task-relevant setting than in a positive emotional task-relevant setting, where incongruent information barely induced conflicts. The degree of emotional conflict critically depends on the contextual emotional valence (positive or negative) in which this conflict occurs. The neurophysiological data show that these modulations were only reflected by late-stage conflict resolution processes associated with the middle (MFG) and superior frontal gyrus (SFG). Attentional selection processes and early-stage conflict monitoring do not seem to be modulated by interactive effects of different interfering socioemotional stimulus dimensions on conflict resolution.

• Klíčová slova
• Conflict processing, EEG, Emotions, Faces, Source localization,
• MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• emoce fyziologie   MeSH
• evokované potenciály fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mapování mozku * MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• pozornost fyziologie   MeSH
• vyjednávání psychologie   MeSH
• výraz obličeje MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH

Executive functions are well-known to undergo developmental changes from childhood to adulthood. Considerable efforts have been made to elucidate the affected system neurophysiological mechanisms. But while it is well-known that developmental changes affect intra-individual variability, this potential bias has largely been neglected when investigating the neurophysiology underlying developmental differences between children and adults. We hypothesize that due to differences in intra-individual variability of neural processes between children and adults, reliable group differences will only be evident after accounting for intra-individual variability in neurophysiological processes. We, therefore, investigate response-inhibition processes as an important instance of executive control in children (between 10 and 14 years) and adults (between 20 and 29 years) and decompose EEG data on the basis of the latency and temporal variability. This was combined with source localization. Children showed more impulsive behavior than adults. Importantly, a reliable match between the neurophysiological and behavioral data could only be found when accounting for intra-individual variability in the EEG data. These decomposed data showed that children and adults use similar neurophysiological mechanisms at the response selection level to accomplish inhibitory control, but seem to engage different neuroanatomical structures to do so according to source localization results: In adults, these processes were related to the medial frontal cortex. In children, the same processes were reflected in a shift of the scalp topography and related to the superior parietal cortex. These shifts in neural networks were associated with lower effectiveness in exerting inhibitory control. However, these differences in the functional neuroanatomical architecture can only be seen when intra-individual variability is taken into account.

• Klíčová slova
• Adult, Children, Cognitive control, Development, EEG, Response inhibition, Source localization,
• MeSH
• automatizované zpracování dat MeSH
• dítě MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• elektroencefalografie MeSH
• evokované potenciály fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mapování mozku * MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mozek anatomie a histologie   fyziologie   MeSH
• nervové dráhy fyziologie   MeSH
• nervový útlum fyziologie   MeSH
• regresní analýza MeSH
• stárnutí fyziologie   MeSH
• Check Tag
• dítě MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

Cognitive flexibility is a major requirement for successful goal-directed behavior and their neurobiological underpinnings are becoming better understood. However, the role of the norepinephrine system during task switching is largely enigmatic, despite neurobiological considerations make it likely that the norepinephrine system likely plays an important role. Theoretical considerations also suggest that the norepinephrine system mainly modulates task-switching processes when these rely upon working memory mechanisms. This topic was examined in the current system neurophysiological study integrating event-related potential (ERP) with pupil diameter data as a proximate the norepinephrine system activity. Combined with source localization methods, human brain structure, brain function, and phasic modulations by an important neurobiological system were integrated. The results show that cognitive-neurophysiological subprocesses during the actual switching processes, reflected by the N2 and P3 ERP components, are not modulated by the norepinephrine system. Rather, this system modulates preparatory processes in the fore period of stimuli signaling possible switches of response sets. The source localization results show that this is achieved by modulating neural processes in the temporo-parietal junction (BA40). Importantly, these phasic modulatory effects of the norepinephrine system were only evident when working memory processes had to be used to guide the selection of the appropriate responses for task switching.

• Klíčová slova
• EEG, Memory, Norepinephrine, Parietal cortex, Pupil diameter, Source localization, Task switching, Working,
• MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• elektroencefalografie MeSH
• evokované potenciály fyziologie   MeSH
• kognice fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mapování mozku * MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• noradrenalin fyziologie   MeSH
• paměť fyziologie   MeSH
• podněty MeSH
• pozornost fyziologie   MeSH
• pupila MeSH
• reakční čas fyziologie   MeSH
• temenní lalok fyziologie   MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• noradrenalin MeSH

Sensorimotor integration is essential for successful motor control and the somatosensory modality has been shown to have strong effects on the execution of motor plans. The primary (SI) and the secondary somatosensory (SII) cortices are known to differ in their neuroanatomical connections to prefrontal areas, as well as in their involvement to encode cognitive aspects of tactile processing. Here, we ask whether the area-specific processing architecture or the structural neuroanatomical connections with prefrontal areas determine the efficacy of sensorimotor integration processes for motor control. In a system neurophysiological study including EEG signal decomposition (i.e., residue iteration decomposition, RIDE) and source localization, we investigated this question using vibrotactile stimuli optimized for SI or SII processing. The behavioral data show that when being triggered via the SI area, inhibitory control of motor processes is stronger as when being triggered via the SII area. On a neurophysiological level, these effects were reflected in the C-cluster as a result of a temporal decomposition of EEG data, indicating that the sensory processes affecting motor inhibition modulate the response selection level. These modulations were associated with a stronger activation of the right inferior frontal gyrus extending to the right middle frontal gyrus as parts of a network known to be involved in inhibitory motor control when response inhibition is triggered over SI. In addition, areas important for sensorimotor integration like the postcentral gyrus and superior parietal cortex showed activation differences. The data suggest that connection patterns are more important for sensorimotor integration and control than the more restricted area-specific processing architecture.

• Klíčová slova
• EEG, Motor control, Neurophysiology, Somatosensory system, Source localization,
• MeSH
• analýza rozptylu MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• elektroencefalografie MeSH
• evokované potenciály fyziologie   MeSH
• inhibice (psychologie) * MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mapování mozku * MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• pohybová aktivita fyziologie   MeSH
• psychomotorický výkon fyziologie   MeSH
• shluková analýza MeSH
• somatosenzorické korové centrum anatomie a histologie   fyziologie   MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

Cognitive control processes play an essential role not only in controlling actions but also in guiding attentional selection processes. Interestingly, these processes are strongly affected by organizational principles of the cerebral cortex and related functional asymmetries, but the neurobiological foundations are elusive. We ask whether neurobiological mechanisms that affect functional cerebral asymmetries will also modulate effects of top-down control processes on functional cerebral asymmetries. To this end, we examined potential effects of the imprinted gene leucine-rich repeat transmembrane neuronal 1 (LRRTM1) on attentional biasing processes in a forced attention dichotic listening task in 983 healthy adult participants of Caucasian descent using the "iDichotic smartphone app." The results show that functional cerebral asymmetries in the language domain are associated with the rs6733871 LRRTM1 polymorphism when cognitive control and top-down attentional mechanisms modulate processes in bottom-up attentional selection processes that are dependent on functional cerebral asymmetries. There is no evidence for an effect of LRRTM1 on functional cerebral asymmetries in the language domain unrelated to cognitive control processes. The results suggest that cognitive control processes are an important factor to consider when being interested in the molecular genetic basis of functional cerebral architecture.

• Klíčová slova
• Cerebral asymmetries, Cognitive control, Dichotic listening, Genetics, LRRTM1, Smartphone,
• MeSH
• akustická stimulace metody   MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• funkční lateralita fyziologie   MeSH
• jazyk (prostředek komunikace) MeSH
• kognice fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• membránové proteiny genetika   MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mozková kůra fyziologie   MeSH
• pozornost fyziologie   MeSH
• proteiny nervové tkáně genetika   MeSH
• průzkumy a dotazníky MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• LRRTM1 protein, human MeSH Prohlížeč
• membránové proteiny MeSH
• proteiny nervové tkáně MeSH

• Klíčová slova
• Tourette syndrome, action, attention, basal ganglia, perception,
• MeSH
• kognitivní poruchy etiologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mozek patologie   MeSH
• tiky diagnóza   patofyziologie   MeSH
• Tourettův syndrom diagnóza   patofyziologie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH

It is far from conclusive what distinguishes the inattentive (ADD) and the combined (ADHD-C) subtype of ADHD on the neuronal level. Theoretical considerations suggest that especially interval timing processes may dissociate these subtypes from each other. Combining high-density EEG recordings with source localization analyses, we examine whether there are ADHD-subtype specific modulations of neurophysiological processes subserving interval timing in matched groups of ADD (n = 16), ADHD-C (n = 16) and controls (n = 16). Patients with ADD and ADHD-C show deficits in interval timing, which was correlated with the degree of inattention in ADD patients. Compared to healthy controls, patients with ADHD-C display a somewhat weaker, yet consistent response preparation process (contingent negative variation, CNV). In patients with ADD, the early CNV is interrupted, indicating an oscillatory disruption of the interval timing process. This is associated with activations in the supplemental motor areas and the middle frontal gyrus. Patients with ADD display adequate feedback learning mechanisms (feedback-related negativity, FRN), which is not the case in patients with ADHD-C. The results suggest that altered pacemaker-accumulation processes in medial frontal structures distinguish the ADD from the ADHD-C subtype. Particularly in patients with ADD phasic interruptions of preparatory neurophysiological processes are evident, making this a possible diagnostic feature.

• MeSH
• dítě MeSH
• hyperkinetická porucha diagnóza   patofyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mozkové vlny * MeSH
• reakční čas MeSH
• učení MeSH
• zpětná vazba fyziologická MeSH
• Check Tag
• dítě MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladiství MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH

Response inhibition mechanisms are mediated via cortical and subcortical networks. At the cortical level, the superior frontal gyrus, including the supplementary motor area (SMA) and inferior frontal areas, is important. There is an ongoing debate about the functional roles of these structures during response inhibition as it is unclear whether these structures process different codes or contents of information during response inhibition. In the current study, we examined this question with a focus on theta frequency oscillations during response inhibition processes. We used a standard Go/Nogo task in a sample of human participants and combined different EEG signal decomposition methods with EEG beamforming approaches. The results suggest that stimulus coding during inhibitory control is attained by oscillations in the upper theta frequency band (∼7 Hz). In contrast, response selection codes during inhibitory control appear to be attained by the lower theta frequency band (∼4 Hz). Importantly, these different codes seem to be processed in distinct functional neuroanatomical structures. Although the SMA may process stimulus codes and response selection codes, the inferior frontal cortex may selectively process response selection codes during inhibitory control. Taken together, the results suggest that different entities within the functional neuroanatomical network associated with response inhibition mechanisms process different kinds of codes during inhibitory control. These codes seem to be reflected by different oscillations within the theta frequency band. Hum Brain Mapp 38:5681-5690, 2017. © 2017 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

• Klíčová slova
• EEG, beamforming, inferior frontal cortex, inhibitory control, neural oscillations, signal decomposition, supplementary motor area,
• MeSH
• dospělí MeSH
• evokované potenciály MeSH
• inhibice (psychologie) * MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• motorické dovednosti fyziologie   MeSH
• neuropsychologické testy MeSH
• počítačové zpracování signálu MeSH
• prefrontální mozková kůra fyziologie   MeSH
• reakční čas MeSH
• theta rytmus EEG * MeSH
• Check Tag
• dospělí MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mladý dospělý MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH