Bats are parasitized by numerous lineages of arthropods, of which bat flies (Diptera, Nycteribiidae and Streblidae) are the most conspicuous. Bat flies themselves can be parasitized by Laboulbeniales, fungal biotrophs of arthropods. This is known as hyperparasitism, a severely understudied phenomenon. Three genera of Laboulbeniales occur on bat flies: Arthrorhynchus on Nycteribiidae, Gloeandromyces and Nycteromyces on Streblidae. In this review we introduce the parasitic partners in this tripartite system and discuss their diversity, ecology, and specificity patterns, alongside some important life history traits. Furthermore, we cover recent advances in the study of the associations between bat flies and Laboulbeniales, which were neglected for decades. Among the most immediate needs for further studies are detailed tripartite field surveys. The vermin only teaze and pinch Their foes superior by an inch So, naturalists observe, a flea Has smaller fleas that on him prey; And these have smaller still to bite 'em, And so proceed ad infinitum. Jonathan Swift (On Poetry: A Rhapsody, 1733).

Department of Biology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green KY USA; Integrative Research Center Field Museum of Natural History Chicago IL USA

Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Harvard University Cambridge MA USA; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado Postal 0843 03092 Balboa Panama; Current affiliation Department of Zoology University of South Bohemia České Budejovice Czech Republic

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado Postal 0843 03092 Balboa Panama; Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics University of Ulm Ulm Germany

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Molecular Detection of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Encephalitozoon spp. in Vespertilionid Bats from Central Europe

DarkCideS 1.0, a global database for bats in karsts and caves