This thorough study analyses the amounts of 43 minerals and trace elements in non-traditional wheat grains, flakes, and undigested flake portions using ICP-MS and establishes declines in their respective contents after the flake production. It also identifies appropriate dietary intakes, in vitro digestibility values, retention factors, and metal pollution indexes. The element contents in wheat flakes are lower than in wheat grains after the hydrothermal treatment process, and their declines are: Na (48-72%), Ce (47-72%), Sr (43-55%), Tl (33-43%), Ti (32-41%), U (31-44%), Ho (29-69%), Cr (26-64%), Zr (26-58%), Ag (25-52%), and Ca (25-46%). The flakes significantly contributed to the recommended dietary intake or adequate intake of particular elements for men of all categories as follows: Mn (143%) > Mo > Cu > Mg ≥ Cr > Fe (16%); for women: Mn (up to 183%) > Mo > Cu > Cr ≥ Mg > Fe (7-16%); for pregnant women aged 19-30: Mn (165%) > Mo > Cu > Mg > Cr (25%); and finally, for lactating women: Mn (127%) > Mo > Cu > Mg > Cr (17%). The contributions to the provisional tolerable weekly or monthly intakes of all toxic elements were established as being within the official limits. The daily intakes for non-essential elements were also calculated. The retention factors were calculated to assess the element concentrations in the undigested part using the digestibility values (87.4-90.5%). The highest retention factors were obtained for V (63-92%), Y (57-96%), Ce (43-76%), Pb (34-58%), Tl (32-70%), Ta (31-66%), and Ge (30-49%). K, Mg, P, Zn, Ba, Bi, Ga, Sb, Cu, Ni, and As appear to be released easily from flake matrices during digestion. The metal pollution index has been confirmed as being lower for non-traditional wheat flakes when compared with grains. Importantly, 15-25% of the metal pollution index assessed for native flakes remains in the undigested flake portion after in vitro digestion.

Department of Food Analysis and Chemistry Tomas Bata University in Zlín Vavrečkova 5669 760 01 Zlín Czech Republic

Department of Food Technology Tomas Bata University in Zlín Vavrečkova 5669 760 01 Zlín Czech Republic

Language Centre Tomas Bata University in Zlín Štefánikova 5670 760 01 Zlín Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Drawbridge P.C., Apea-Bah F., Hornung P.S., Beta T. Bioaccessibility of phenolic acids in Canadian hulless barley varieties. Food Chem. 2021;358:129905. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129905. PubMed DOI

Lemmens E., Deleu L.J., De Brier N., Smolders E., Delcour J.A. Mineral bio-accessibility and intrinsic saccharides in breakfast flakes manufactured from sprouted wheat. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2021;143:111079. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111079. DOI

Kiewlitz J., Rybicka I. Minerals and their bioavailability in relation to dietary fiber, phytates and tannins from gluten and gluten-free flakes. Food Chem. 2020;305:125452. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125452. PubMed DOI

Liu Z., Wang H., Wang X.-E., Xu H., Gao D., Zhang G., Chen P., Liu D. Effect of wheat pearling on flour phytate activity, phytic acid, iron and zinc content. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2008;41:521–527. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2007.04.001. DOI

Ficco D.B.M., Borrelli G.M., Miedico O., Giovanniello V., Tarallo M., Pompa C., De Vita P., Chiaravalle A.E. Effect of grain debranning on bioactive compounds, antioxidant capacity and essential and toxic trace elements in purple durum wheats. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2020;118:108734. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108734. DOI

Do Prado Ferreira M., Teixeira Tarley C.R. Bioaccessibility estimation of metallic macro and micronutrients Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn in flours of oat and passion fruit peel. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2021;150:111880. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111880. DOI

Dost K., Tokul O. Determination of phytic acid in wheat and wheat products by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2006;558:22–27. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.11.035. DOI

Affonfere M., Chadare F.J., Fassinou F.T.K., Linnemann A.R., Duodu K.G. In-vitro digestibility methods and factors affecting minerals bioavailability: A review. Food Rev. Int. 2023;39:1014–1042. doi: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1928692. DOI

Adetola O.Y., Kruger J., White Z., Taylor J.R.N. Comparison between food-to-food fortification of pearl millet porridge with moringa leaves and baobab fruit and with adding ascorbic and citric acid on iron, zinc and other mineral bioaccessibility. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2019;106:92–97. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.02.044. DOI

Brouns F. Phytic acid and whole grains for health controversy. Nutrients. 2022;14:25. doi: 10.3390/nu14010025. PubMed DOI PMC

Sęczyk Ł., Sugier D., Świeca M., Gawlik-Dziki U. The effect of in vitro digestion, food matrix, and hydrothermal treatment on the potential bioaccessibility of selected phenolic compounds. Food Chem. 2021;344:128581. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128581. PubMed DOI

Liu K., Zheng J., Wang X., Chen F. Effect of household cooking process on mineral, vitamin B, and phytic acid contents and mineral bioaccessibility in rice. Food Chem. 2019;280:59–64. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.053. PubMed DOI

Koláčková T., Sumczynski D., Minařík A., Yalçin E., Orsavová J. The effect of in vitro digestion on matcha tea (Camellia sinensis) active components and antioxidant activity. Antioxidants. 2022;11:889. doi: 10.3390/antiox11050889. PubMed DOI PMC

Sumczynski D., Koubová E., Sneyd J., Erb-Weber S., Orsavová J. Preparation of non-traditional Dickkopf and Richard wheat flakes: Phenolic and vitamin profiles and antioxidant activity. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2018;90:31–37. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.12.004. DOI

AOAC . Association of Official Analytical Chemists International. 5th ed. AOAC; Arlington, VA, USA: 2007.

Sumczynski D., Koubová E., Šenkárová L., Orsavová J. Rice flakes produced from commercial wild rice: Chemical composition, vitamin B compounds, mineral and trace element contents and their dietary intake evaluation. Food Chem. 2018;264:386–392. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.061. PubMed DOI

Institute of Medicine . Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. The National Academy Press; Washington, DC, USA: 1997. PubMed

Institute of Medicine . Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. The National Academy Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2000. PubMed

Institute of Medicine . Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. The National Academy Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2001. PubMed

Institute of Medicine . Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. The National Academy Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2005.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives . Evaluation of Certain Contaminants: Sixty-Fourth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2006. (WHO Technical Report Series No. 930).

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives . Evaluation of Certain Contaminants in Food: Seventy-Second Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2011. (WHO Technical Report Series No. 959).

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives . Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants: Seventy-Fourth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2011. (WHO Technical Report Series No. 966).

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives . Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants: Seventy-Seventh Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2013. (WHO Technical Report Series No. 983).

Orecchio S., Amorello D., Raso M., Barreca S., Lino C., Di Gaudio F. Determination of trace elements in gluten-free food for celiac people by ICP-MS. Microchem. J. 2014;116:163–172. doi: 10.1016/j.microc.2014.04.011. DOI

Singh P.K., Yadav J.S., Kumar I., Kumar U., Sharma R.K. Carpet industry irrigational sources risk assessment: Heavy metal contaminated vegetables and cereal crops in northern India. Toxicol. Rep. 2022;9:1906–1919. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.10.010. PubMed DOI PMC

Ministry of Agriculture; Prague, Czech Republic: 2020. Regulation for Cereal and Cereal Products, Pasta and Bakery Products.

Sumczynski D., Bubelova Z., Sneyd J., Erb-Weber S., Mlcek J. Total phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, crude fibre and digestibility in non-traditional wheat flakes and muesli. Food Chem. 2015;174:319–325. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.11.065. PubMed DOI

Qiao F.-Q., Wang F., Ren L.-P., Zhou Z.-M., Meng Q.-X., Bao Y.-H. Effect of steam-flaking on chemical compositions, starch gelatinization, in vitro fermentability, and energetic values of maize, wheat and rice. J. Integr. Aric. 2015;14:949–955. doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(14)60913-8. DOI

Škrbić B., Čupić S. Toxic and essential elements in soft wheat grain cultivated in Serbia. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2005;221:361–366. doi: 10.1007/s00217-005-1179-3. DOI

Karami M., Afyuni M., Khoshgoftarmanesh A.H., Papritz A., Schulin R. Grain zinc, iron, and copper concentrations of wheat grown in central Iran and their relationships with soil and climate variables. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009;57:10876–10882. doi: 10.1021/jf902074f. PubMed DOI

Bermudez G.M.A., Jasan R., Plá R., Pignata M.L. Heavy metal and trace element concentrations in wheat grains: Assessment of potential non-carcinogenic health hazard through their consumption. J. Hazard. Mater. 2011;193:264–271. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.07.058. PubMed DOI

Zvěřina O., Kuta J., Coufalík P., Kosečková P., Komárek J. Simultaneous determination of cadmium and iron in different kinds of cereal flakes using high-resolution continuum source atomic absorption spectrometry. Food Chem. 2019;298:125084. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125084. PubMed DOI

Commission Regulation (EC) No 629/2008 of 2 July 2008 Amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 Maximum Levels for Certain Contaminants in Foodstuffs. 2008. [(accessed on 5 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008R0629&qid=1673430422268&from=CS.

Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/1323 of 10 August 2021 Amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as Regards Maximum Levels of Cadmium in Certain Foodstuffs. 2021. [(accessed on 5 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R1323&from=EN.

European Food Safety Authority Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population. [(accessed on 5 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2012 10:2551. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2551. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2551. DOI

Commission Regulation (EU) No 420/2011 of 29 April 2011 Amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 Setting Maximum Levels for Certain Contaminants in Foodstuffs. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32011R0420&qid=1673429826655&from=CS.

Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/1317 of 9 August 2021 Amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as Regards Maximum Levels of Lead in Certain Foodstuffs. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R1317&qid=1678878875525&from=CS.

Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/1006 of 25 June 2015 Amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as Regards Maximum Levels of Inorganic Arsenic in Foodstuffs. [(accessed on 9 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32015R1006&qid=1678879433609&from=CS.

Wu G., Ashton J., Simic A., Fang Z., Johnson S.K. Mineral availability is modified by tannin and phytate content in sorghum flaked breakfast cereals. Food Res. Int. 2018;103:509–514. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.09.050. PubMed DOI

Kabata-Pendias A. Trace Elements in Soils and Plants. 4th ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group; New York, NY, USA: 2011. pp. 1–153.

Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the Provision of Food Information to Consumers, Amending Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and Repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496,EEC, Commission Directive 1990/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004. [(accessed on 15 December 2022)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02011R1169-20180101&qid=1678014199899&from=CS.

Antoine J.M.R., Hoo Fung L.A., Grant C.N., Dennis H.T., Lalor G.C. Dietary intake of minerals and trace elements in rice on the Jamaican market. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2012;26:111–121. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2012.01.003. DOI

European Food Safety Authority European Food Safety Authority. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2014 12:3846. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3846. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for selenium. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2023 21:7704. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7704. PubMed DOI PMC

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on dietary reference values for copper. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2015 13:4253. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4253. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4253. DOI

Mathebula M.W., Mandiwana K., Panichev N. Speciation of chromium in bread and breakfast cereals. Food Chem. 2017;217:655–659. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.020. PubMed DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on the risk to public health related to the presence of chromium in food and drinking water. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2014 12:3595. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3595. DOI

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . IRIS Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium (External Review Draft): Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) EPA; Washington, DC, USA: 2022.

Dong J.Y., Xun P., He K., Qin L.Q. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:2116–2122. doi: 10.2337/dc11-0518. PubMed DOI PMC

Kumar N. Nutritional neuropathies. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];Neurol. Clin. 2007 25:209–255. doi: 10.1016/j.ncl.2006.11.001. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199287/pdf/nihms549812.pdf. PubMed DOI

European Food Safety Authority Re-evaluation of the existing health-based guidance values for copper and exposure assessment from all sources. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2023 21:7728. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7728. PubMed DOI PMC

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on dietary reference values for molybdenum. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2013 11:3333. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3333. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3333. DOI

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung—Österreichische Gesellschaft für Ernährung, Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Ernährungsforschung, Schdweizerische Vereinigung für Ernährung: Referenzwerte für die Nährstoffzufuhr. Neuer Umschau Buchverlag; Frankfurt/Main, Germany: 2013.

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on dietary reference values for manganese. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2013 11:3419. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3419. DOI

EFSA Scientific Committee. More S.J., Bampidis V., Benford D., Bragard C., Halldorsson T.I., Hernández-Jerez A.F., Bennekou S.H., Koutsoumanis K., Lambré C., et al. Content of toxic elements in 12 group of rice products available on Polish market: Human health risk assessment. Foods. 2020;9:1906. doi: 10.3390/foods9121906. PubMed DOI PMC

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ATSDR’s Substance Priority List. [(accessed on 2 February 2023)];2022 Available online: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/index.html#2022spl.

European Food Safety Authority Cadmium in food. Scientific Opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2009 980:1–139. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.980. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion. Statement on tolerable weekly intake for cadmium. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2011 9:1975. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2011.1975. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific opinion on the risk for public health related to the presence of mercury and methylmercury in food. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2012 10:2985. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2985. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Safety of aluminium from dietary intake. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Food Contact Materials (AFC) [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2008 754:1–34. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2008.754. PubMed DOI PMC

Filippini T., Tancredi S., Malagoli C., Cilloni S., Malavolti M., Violi F., Vescovi L., Bargellini A., Vinceti M. Aluminium and tin: Food contamination and dietary intake in an Italian population. J. Trace. Elem Med. Biol. 2019;52:293–301. doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2019.01.012. PubMed DOI

Koubová E., Sumczynski D., Šenkárová L., Orsavová J., Fišera M. Dietary intakes of minerals, essential and toxic trace elements for adults from Eragrostis tef L.: A nutritional assessment. Nutrients. 2018;10:479. doi: 10.3390/nu10040479. PubMed DOI PMC

European Food Safety Authority Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the tolerable upper intake level of tin. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2005 254:1–25. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2005.254. DOI

Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 Setting Maximum Levels for Certain Contaminants in Foodstuffs. [(accessed on 5 January 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02006R1881-20230101&qid=1678820563695&from=CS.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives . Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants: Seventy-Third Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2011. (WHO Technical Report Series No. 960).

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on lead in food. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2010 8:1570. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1570. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Report of EFSA. Lead dietary exposure in the European population. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2012 10:2831. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2831. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Report of EFSA. Dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic in the European population. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2014 12:3597. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3597. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on arsenic in food. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2009 7:1351. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1351. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1351. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of nickel in food and drinking water. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2015 13:4002. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4002. DOI

European Food Safety Authority Update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2020 18:6268. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6268. PubMed DOI PMC

Akinyele I.O., Shokunbi O.S. Concentrations of Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni in selected Nigerian tubers, legumes and cereals and estimates of the adult daily intakes. Food Chem. 2015;173:702–708. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.098. PubMed DOI

Drake P.L., Hazelwood K.J. Exposure-related health effects of silver and silver compounds: A review. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2005;49:575–585. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/mei019. PubMed DOI

World Health Organization . Silver in Drinking-Water: Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: 2021. [(accessed on 5 February 2023)]. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/350935/WHO-HEP-ECH-WSH-2021.7-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

Dawson P.A., Elliot A., Bowling F.G. Sulphate in pregnancy. Nutrients. 2015;7:1594–1606. doi: 10.3390/nu7031594. PubMed DOI PMC

Kowalczyk E., Givelet L., Amlund H., Sloth J.J., Hansen M. Risk assessment of rare earth elements, antimony, barium, boron, lithium, tellurium, thallium and vanadium in teas. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2022 20:e200410. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.e200410. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.e200410. PubMed DOI PMC

World Health Organization . Antimony in Drinking-Water: Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: 2003. [(accessed on 2 February 2023)]. Available online: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/antimony.pdf.

Wu F., Fu Z., Liu B., Mo C., Chen B., Corns W., Liao H. Health risk associated with dietary co-exposure to high levels of antimony and arsenic in the world’s largest antimony mine area. Sci. Total Environ. 2011;409:3344–3351. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.05.033. PubMed DOI

Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks SCHER . Assessment of the Tolerable Daily Intake of Barium. Publications Office of the European Union; Luxembourg: Mar 22, 2012. [(accessed on 5 February 2023)]. Available online: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/176688a8-869f-4a9e-b590-f8fcf09fc1c2/language-en.

World Health Organization . Strontium and Strontium Compounds: Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 77. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 2010. [(accessed on 5 February 2023)]. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44280/9789241530774_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

Kołodziejska B., Stępień J., Kolmas J. The influence of strontium on bone metabolism and its application in osteoporosis treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021;22:6564. doi: 10.3390/ijms22126564. PubMed DOI PMC

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Inorganic Contaminant Accumulation in Potable Water Distribution Systems. EPA; Washington, DC, USA: 2006. [(accessed on 6 February 2023)]. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-05/documents/issuepaper_tcr_inorganicaccumulation_posted.pdf.

European Food Safety Authority . Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for Vitamins and Minerals: Scientific Committee on Food. Scientific Panel on Dietetics products, Nutrition and Allergies; 2006. [(accessed on 7 February 2023)]. p. 482. Available online: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf.

Szklarska D., Rzymski P. Is lithium a micronutrient? From biological activity and epidemiological observation to food fortification. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2019 189:18–27. doi: 10.1007/s12011-018-1455-2. Available online: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-018-1455-2. PubMed DOI PMC

Schrauzer G.N. Lithium: Occurrence, dietary intakes, nutritional essentiality. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002;21:14–21. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2002.10719188. PubMed DOI

European Food Safety Authority Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the tolerable upper intake level of boron (sodium borate and boric acid) [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2004 820:1–22. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2004.80. DOI

Nielsen F.H. Update on human health effects of boron. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2014;28:383–387. doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.06.023. PubMed DOI

National Institutes of Health Boron. Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. [(accessed on 5 January 2023)]; Available online: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Boron-HealthProfessional/

World Health Organization . Boron: Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health. WHO Press; Geneva, Switzerland: 1996.

World Health Organization & International Programme on Chemical Safety . Boron: Environmental Health Criteria 204. WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: 1998. p. 201.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Toxicological Review of Thallium and Compounds. EPA; Washington, DC, USA: 2009. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)]. (CAS No. 7440-28-0) Available online: https://iris.epa.gov/static/pdfs/1012tr.pdf.

Cvjetko P., Cvjetko I., Pavlica M. Thallium toxicity in humans. Arh. Hig. Rada. Toksikol. 2010;61:111–119. doi: 10.2478/10004-1254-61-2010-1976. PubMed DOI

European Food Safety Authority Review of potentially toxic rare earth elements, thallium and tellurium in plant-based foods. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2020 18:e181101. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.e181101. PubMed DOI PMC

Minekus M., Alminger M., Alvito P., Ballance S., Bohn TO RS TE N., Bourlieu C., Brodkorb A. Standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food–an international consensus. Food Funct. 2014;5:1113–1124. doi: 10.1039/C3FO60702J. PubMed DOI

Sharafi K., Nodehi R.N., Mahvi A.H., Pirsaheb M., Nazmara S., Mahmoudi B., Yunesian M. Bioacessibility analysis of toxic metals in consumed rice through an in vitro human digestion model—Comparison of calculated human health risk from raw, cooked and digested rice. Food Chem. 2019;299:125126. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125126. PubMed DOI

Cioca A.-A., Langerholc T., Tušar L. Implementation of food matrix effects into chemical food contaminant risk assessment. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];EFSA J. 2022 20:e200905. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.e200905. Available online: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.e200905. PubMed DOI PMC

Kumar D., Prijanka, Shukla V., Kumar S., Ram R.B., Kumar N. Metal pollution index and daily dietary intake of metals through consumption of vegetables. [(accessed on 8 January 2023)];Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020 17:3271–3278. doi: 10.1007/s13762-019-02594-y. Available online: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13762-019-02594-y. DOI

Sanaei F., Amin M.M., Alavijeh Z.P., Esfahani R.A., Sadeghi M., Bandarrig N.S., Rezakazemi M. Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements intake via food crops consumption: Monte Carlo simulation-based probabilistic and heavy metal pollution index. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021;28:1479–1490. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-10450-7. PubMed DOI