Dielectric barrier discharge ionization (DBDI) sources, employing low-temperature plasma, have emerged as sensitive and efficient ionization tools with various atmospheric pressure ionization processes. In this review, we summarize a historical overview of the development of DBDI, highlighting key principles of gas-phase ion chemistry and the mechanisms underlying the ionization processes within the DBDI source. These processes start with the formation of reagent ions or metastable atoms from the discharge gas, which depends on the nature of the gas (helium, nitrogen, air) and on the presence of water vapor or other compounds or dopants. The processes of ionizing the analyte molecules are summarized, including Penning ionization, electron transfer, proton transfer and ligand switching from secondary hydrated hydronium ions. Presently, the DBDI-MS methods face a challenge in the accurate quantification of gaseous analytes, limiting its broader application in biological, environmental, and medical realms where relative quantification using standards is inherently complex for gaseous matrices. Finally, we propose future avenues of research to enhance the analytical capabilities of DBDI-MS.

J Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czechia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abuhelal, S. , Robinson K., Takats Z., and Siddiqui S.. 2023. “Real‐Time Breath Volatilomics Analysis by Soft Ionisation Mass Spectrometry.” European Respiratory Journal 62: PA2956. 10.1183/13993003.congress-2023.PA2956. DOI

Ahmed, E. , Xiao D., Dumlao M. C., et al. 2020. “Nanosecond Pulsed Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical Chemistry 92: 4468–4474. 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05491. PubMed DOI

Almasian, M. R. , Yang C., Xing Z., Zhang S., and Zhang X.. 2010. “Development of a Graphite Low‐Temperature Plasma Source With Dual‐Mode In‐Source Fragmentation for Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 24: 742–748. 10.1002/rcm.4444. PubMed DOI

Alves, L. L. , Gousset G., and Ferreira C. M.. 1992. “A Collisional‐Radiative Model for Microwave Discharges in Helium at Low and Intermediate Pressures.” Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 25: 1713–1732. 10.1088/0022-3727/25/12/007. DOI

Atkinson, R. , Baulch D. L., Cox R. A., et al. 1997. “Evaluated Kinetic and Photochemical Data for Atmospheric Chemistry: Supplement VI. IUPAC Subcommittee on Gas Kinetic Data Evaluation for Atmospheric Chemistry.” Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 26: 1329–1499. 10.1063/1.556010. DOI

Ayala‐Cabrera, J. F. , Montero L., Meckelmann S. W., Uteschil F., and Schmitz O. J.. 2023. “Review on Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Sources for Gas Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry. Part I: Current Ion Source Developments and Improvements in Ionization Strategies.” Analytica Chimica Acta 1238: 340353. 10.1016/j.aca.2022.340353. PubMed DOI

Ayala‐Cabrera, J. F. , Turkowski J., Uteschil F., and Schmitz O. J.. 2022. “Development of a Tube Plasma Ion Source for Gas Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry Analysis and Comparison With Other Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Techniques.” Analytical Chemistry 94: 9595–9602. 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c00582. PubMed DOI

Basham, V. , Hancock T., McKendrick J., Tessarolo N., and Wicking C.. 2022. “Detailed Chemical Analysis of a Fully Formulated Oil Using Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionisation‐Mass Spectrometry.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 36: e9320. 10.1002/rcm.9320. PubMed DOI PMC

Begley, A. , and Zenobi R.. 2023. “Discriminating Alkylbenzene Isomers With Tandem Mass Spectrometry Using a Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Source.” Journal of Mass Spectrometry 58: e4910. 10.1002/jms.4910. PubMed DOI

Bloch, F. , and Bradbury N. E.. 1935. “On the Mechanism of Unimolecular Electron Capture.” Physical Review 48: 689–695. 10.1103/PhysRev.48.689. DOI

Blyth, R. G. C. , Powis I., and Danby C. J.. 1981. “Competing Pre‐Dissociations of O+2(B̃ 2∑−G).” Chemical Physics Letters 84: 272–275. 10.1016/0009-2614(81)80343-0. DOI

Bohringer, H. , Glebe W., and Arnold F.. 1983. “Temperature Dependence of the Mobility and Association Rate Coefficient of He+ Ions in He From 30‐350K.” Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 16: 2619–2626. 10.1088/0022-3700/16/14/022. DOI

Bouza, M. , Ahmed E., Rocío‐Bautista P., et al. 2023a. “Ion Heating in Advanced Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ion Sources for Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of the American Society of Mass Spectrometry. 34: 1145–1152. 10.1021/jasms.3c00087. PubMed DOI PMC

Bouza, M. , Garcia‐Martinez J., Gilbert‐Lopez B., et al. 2023b. “Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mechanisms: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons as a Case of Study.” Analytical Chemistry 95: 854–861. 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03279. PubMed DOI PMC

Bouza, M. , García‐Martínez J., Gilbert‐López B., et al. 2022. “Liquid Chromatography‐Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Neutral Lipids of Archaeological Interest.” Journal of Separation Science 45: 3105–3114. 10.1002/jssc.202200402. PubMed DOI PMC

Brandt, S. , Klute F. D., Schütz A., and Franzke J.. 2017. “Dielectric Barrier Discharges Applied for Soft Ionization and Their Mechanism.” Analytica Chimica Acta 951: 16–31. 10.1016/j.aca.2016.10.037. PubMed DOI

Brandt, S. , Klute F. D., Schütz A., et al. 2018. “Flexible Microtube Plasma (FμTP) as an Embedded Ionization Source for a Microchip Mass Spectrometer Interface.” Analytical Chemistry 90: 10111–10116. 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b01493. PubMed DOI

Burkholder, J. B. , Sander S. P., Abbatt J. P. D., et al. 2019. Chemical Kinetics and Photochemical Data for Use in Atmospheric Studies. Pasadena: NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

Chanin, L. M. , Phelps A. V., and Biondi M. A.. 1962. “Measurements of the Attachment of Low‐Energy Electrons to Oxygen Molecules.” Physical Review 128: 219–230. 10.1103/PhysRev.128.219. DOI

Chen, L. C. , Yu Z., Furuya H., et al. 2010a. “Development of Ambient Sampling Chemi/Chemical Ion Source With Dielectric Barrier Discharge.” Journal of Mass Spectrometry 45: 861–869. 10.1002/jms.1772. PubMed DOI

Chen, L. C. , Yu Z., and Hiraoka K.. 2010b. “Vapor Phase Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide With Ambient Sampling Chemi/Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical Methods 2: 897–900. 10.1039/c0ay00170h. DOI

cii‐tech.com . 2024. China Innovation Instrument Co. Ltd. http://www.cii-tech.com/.

Cody, R. B. , Laramée J. A., and Durst H. D.. 2005. “Versatile New Ion Source for the Analysis of Materials in Open Air Under Ambient Conditions.” Analytical Chemistry 77: 2297–2302. 10.1021/ac050162j. PubMed DOI

Conway, C. , Weber M., Ferranti A., Wolf J.‐C., and Haisch C.. 2023. “Rapid Desorption and Analysis for Illicit Drugs and Chemical Profiling of Fingerprints by SICRIT Ion Source.” Drug Testing and Analysis 15: 1094–1101. 10.1002/dta.3623. PubMed DOI

Deloche, R. , Monchicourt P., Cheret M., and Lambert F.. 1976. “High‐Pressure Helium Afterglow at Room Temperature.” Physical Review A 13: 1140–1176. 10.1103/PhysRevA.13.1140. DOI

Dousty, F. , and O'Brien R.. 2015. “The Use of Isoprene as a Novel Dopant in Negative Ion Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization Mass Spectrometry Coupled to High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 29: 1031–1038. 10.1002/rcm.7187. PubMed DOI

Dryahina, K. , Polasek M., Smith D., and Spanel P.. 2021a. “Sensitivity of Secondary Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry to a Range of Volatile Organic Compounds: Ligand Switching Ion Chemistry and the Influence of Zspray (TM) Guiding Electric Fields.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 35: e9187. 10.1002/rcm.9187. PubMed DOI

Dryahina, K. , Som S., Smith D., and Španěl P.. 2021b. “Reagent and Analyte Ion Hydrates in Secondary Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (SESI‐MS), Their Equilibrium Distributions and Dehydration in an Ion Transfer Capillary: Modelling and Experiments.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 35: e9047. 10.1002/rcm.9047. PubMed DOI

Dumlao, M. , Khairallah G. N., and Donald W. A.. 2017a. “Internal Energy Deposition in Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Is Significantly Lower Than in Direct Analysis in Real‐Time Mass Spectrometry.” Australian Journal of Chemistry 70: 1219–1226. 10.1071/ch17440. DOI

Dumlao, M. C. , Jeffress L. E., Gooding J. J., and Donald W. A.. 2016. “Solid‐Phase Microextraction Low Temperature Plasma Mass Spectrometry for the Direct and Rapid Analysis of Chemical Warfare Simulants in Complex Mixtures.” Analyst 141: 3714–3721. 10.1039/C6AN00178E. PubMed DOI

Dumlao, M. C. , Xiao D., Zhang D. M., Fletcher J., and Donald W. A.. 2017b. “Effects of Different Waveforms on the Performance of Active Capillary Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 28: 575–578. 10.1007/s13361-016-1535-5. PubMed DOI

Dunkin, D. B. , Fehsenfeld F. C., Schmeltekopf A. L., and Ferguson E. E.. 1971. “Three‐Body Association Reactions of NO+ With O DOI

Dzidic, I. , Carroll D. I., Stillwell R. N., and Horning E. C.. 1976. “Comparison of Positive Ions Formed in Nickel‐63 and Corona Discharge Ion Sources Using Nitrogen, Argon, Isobutane, Ammonia and Nitric Oxide as Reagents in Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical Chemistry 48: 1763–1768. 10.1021/ac50006a035. DOI

Fehsenfeld, F. C. , and Ferguson E. E.. 1969. “Origin of Water Cluster Ions in the D Region.” Journal of Geophysical Research 74: 2217–2222. 10.1029/JA074i009p02217. DOI

Fehsenfeld, F. C. , and Ferguson E. E.. 1974. “Laboratory Studies of Negative Ion Reactions With Atmospheric Trace Constituents.” Journal of Chemical Physics 61: 3181–3193. 10.1063/1.1682474. DOI

Fehsenfeld, F. C. , Mosesman M., and Ferguson E. E.. 1971a. “Ion—Molecule Reactions in an O DOI

Fehsenfeld, F. C. , Mosesman M., and Ferguson E. E.. 1971b. “Ion—Molecule Reactions in NO DOI

Franzke, J. , and Miclea M.. 2006. “Sample Analysis With Miniaturized Plasmas.” Applied Spectroscopy 60: 80A–90A. 10.1366/000370206776342689. PubMed DOI

Freysinger, W. , Khan F. A., Armentrout P. B., Tosi P., Dmitriev O., and Bassi D.. 1994. “Charge‐Transfer Reaction of 14,15N+(3PJ)+N2(1Σ+g) From Thermal to 100 eV. Crossed‐Beam and Scattering‐Cell Guided‐Ion Beam Experiments.” Journal of Chemical Physics 101: 3688–3695. 10.1063/1.467553. DOI

Frost, D. C. , and McDowell C. A.. 1958. “The Ionization and Dissociation of Oxygen by Electron Impact1.” Journal of the American Chemical Society 80: 6183–6187. 10.1021/ja01556a009. DOI

Funke, S. K. I. , Brückel V. A., Weber M., et al. 2021. “Plug‐and‐Play Laser Ablation‐Mass Spectrometry for Molecular Imaging by Means of Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization.” Analytica Chimica Acta 1177: 338770. 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338770. PubMed DOI

Gelner, A. D. , Pang G. A., Weber M., et al. 2022. “Gaseous Emissions of a Heavy‐Duty Engine Fueled With Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OME) in Transient Cold‐Start Operation and Methods for After‐Treatment System Heating.” Environmental Science: Advances 1: 470–482. 10.1039/D2VA00080F. DOI

Gilbert‐López, B. , García‐Reyes J. F., Meyer C., et al. 2012. “Simultaneous Testing of Multiclass Organic Contaminants in Food and Environment by Liquid Chromatography/Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization‐Mass Spectrometry.” Analyst 137: 5403–5410. 10.1039/C2AN35705D. PubMed DOI

Gilbert‐López, B. , Schilling M., Ahlmann N., et al. 2013. “Ambient Diode Laser Desorption Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Nonvolatile Chemicals.” Analytical Chemistry 85: 3174–3182. 10.1021/ac303452w. PubMed DOI

Golubovskii, Y. B. , Maiorov V. A., Behnke J., and Behnke J. F.. 2003. “Modelling of the Homogeneous Barrier Discharge in Helium at Atmospheric Pressure.” Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 36: 39–49. 10.1088/0022-3727/36/1/306. DOI

Good, A. , Durden D. A., and Kebarle P.. 1970a. “Ion–Molecule Reactions in Pure Nitrogen and Nitrogen Containing Traces of Water at Total Pressures 0.5–4 Torr. Kinetics of Clustering Reactions Forming H+(H DOI

Good, A. , Durden D. A., and Kebarle P.. 1970b. “Mechanism and Rate Constants of Ion–Molecule Reactions Leading to Formation of H DOI

Gravendeel, B. , and Hoog F. J.. 1987. “Clustered Negative Ions in Atmospheric Negative Corona Discharges in the Trichel Regime.” Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 20: 6337–6361. 10.1088/0022-3700/20/23/025. DOI

Gross, J. H. 2014. “Direct Analysis in Real Time—A Critical Review on DART‐MS.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 406: 63–80. 10.1007/s00216-013-7316-0. PubMed DOI

Guo, C. , Tang F., Chen J., Wang X., Zhang S., and Zhang X.. 2015a. “Development of Dielectric‐Barrier‐Discharge Ionization.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 407: 2345–2364. 10.1007/s00216-014-8281-y. PubMed DOI

Guo, C. A. , Tang F., Chen J., Wang X. H., Zhang S. C., and Zhang X. R.. 2015b. “Development of Dielectric‐Barrier‐Discharge Ionization.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 407: 2345–2364. 10.1007/s00216-014-8281-y. PubMed DOI

Gyr, L. , Wolf J.‐C., Franzke J., and Zenobi R.. 2018. “Mechanistic Understanding Leads to Increased Ionization Efficiency and Selectivity in Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry: A Case Study with Perfluorinated Compounds.” Analytical Chemistry 90: 2725–2731. 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04711. PubMed DOI

Harper, J. D. , Charipar N. A., Mulligan C. C., Zhang X., Cooks R. G., and Ouyang Z.. 2008. “Low‐Temperature Plasma Probe for Ambient Desorption Ionization.” Analytical Chemistry 80: 9097–9104. 10.1021/ac801641a. PubMed DOI

Harrison, A. G. 1992. Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry. New York: Routledge. 10.1201/9781315139128. DOI

Hayen, H. , Michels A., and Franzke J.. 2009. “Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization for Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical Chemistry 81: 10239–10245. 10.1021/ac902176k. PubMed DOI

He, J. , Wang W., Zhang H., et al. 2021. “Nebulization Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Rapid and Sensitive Analysis of Acenaphthene.” Talanta 222: 121681. 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121681. PubMed DOI

Heffernan, D. , Pilz M., Klein M., et al. 2023. “Screening of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) From Liquid Fungal Cultures Using Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 415: 4615–4627. 10.1007/s00216-023-04769-6. PubMed DOI PMC

Herron, J. T. 1999. “Evaluated Chemical Kinetics Data for Reactions of N(2D), N(2P), and N2(A 3Σu+) in the Gas Phase.” Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 28: 1453–1483. 10.1063/1.556043. DOI

Herron, J. T. , and Green D. S.. 2001. “Chemical Kinetics Database and Predictive Schemes for Nonthermal Humid Air Plasma Chemistry. Part II. Neutral Species Reactions.” Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing 21: 459–481. 10.1023/A:1011082611822. DOI

Hiraoka, K. , Ninomiya S., Chen L. C., et al. 2011. “Development of Double Cylindrical Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ion Source.” Analyst 136: 1210–1215. 10.1039/c0an00621a. PubMed DOI

Hiraoka, K. , Rankin‐Turner S., Ninomiya S., Shimada H., Kinoshita K., and Yamabe S.. 2021. “Corona Discharge and Field Electron Emission in Ambient Air Using a Sharp Metal Needle: Formation and Reactivity of CO PubMed DOI PMC

Hodges, R. V. , Varney R. N., and Riley J. F.. 1985. “Probability of Electrical Breakdown: Evidence for a Transition Between the Townsend and Streamer Breakdown Mechanisms.” Physical Review A 31: 2610–2620. 10.1103/physreva.31.2610. PubMed DOI

de Hoffmann, E. , and Stroobant V.. 2007. Mass Spectrometry: Principles and Applications (3rd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Hogg, A. M. , and Kebarle P.. 1965. “Mass‐Spectrometric Study of Ions at Near‐Atmospheric Pressure. II. Ammonium Ions Produced by the Alpha Radiolysis of Ammonia and Their Solvation in the Gas Phase by Ammonia and Water Molecules.” Journal of Chemical Physics 43: 449–456. 10.1063/1.1696762. DOI

Hornbeck, J. A. , and Molnar J. P.. 1951. “Mass Spectrometric Studies of Molecular Ions in the Noble Gases.” Physical Review 84: 621–625. 10.1103/PhysRev.84.621. DOI

Huba, A. K. , Mirabelli M. F., and Zenobi R.. 2018. “High‐Throughput Screening of PAHs and Polar Trace Contaminants in Water Matrices By Direct Solid‐Phase Microextraction Coupled to a Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Source.” Analytica Chimica Acta 1030: 125–132. 10.1016/j.aca.2018.05.050. PubMed DOI

Huba, A. K. , Mirabelli M. F., and Zenobi R.. 2019. “Understanding and Optimizing the Ionization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Dielectric Barrier Discharge Sources.” Analytical Chemistry 91: 10694–10701. 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02044. PubMed DOI

Itikawa, Y. , Hayashi M., Ichimura A., et al. 1986. “Cross Sections for Collisions of Electrons and Photons With Nitrogen Molecules.” Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 15: 985–1010. 10.1063/1.555762. DOI

Itikawa, Y. , Ichimura A., Onda K., et al. 1989. “Cross Sections for Collisions of Electrons and Photons With Oxygen Molecules.” Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 18: 23–42. 10.1063/1.555841. DOI

Jaffke, T. , Meinke M., Hashemi R., Christophorou L. G., and Illenberger E.. 1992. “Dissociative Electron Attachment to Singlet Oxygen.” Chemical Physics Letters 193: 62–68. 10.1016/0009-2614(92)85683-2. DOI

Kambara, H. , Mitsui Y., and Kanomata I.. 1979. “Identification of Clusters Produced in an Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Process by a Collisional Dissociation Method.” Analytical Chemistry 51: 1447–1452. 10.1021/ac50045a022. DOI

Kebarle, P. , and Hogg A. M.. 1965a. “Heats of Hydration and Solvation by Mass Spectrometry.” The Journal of Chemical Physics 42: 798–799. 10.1063/1.1696016. DOI

Kebarle, P. , and Hogg A. M.. 1965b. “Mass‐Spectrometric Study of Ions at Near Atmospheric Pressures. I. The Ionic Polymerization of Ethylene.” Journal of Chemical Physics 42: 668–674. 10.1063/1.1695987. DOI

Kim, J. , Lee H., Huh S.‐C., et al. 2023. “Competitive Formation of NO, NO DOI

Klute, F. D. , Brandt S., and Franzke J.. 2021. “Spatiotemporal Characterization of Different Dielectric Barrier Discharges Designed for Soft Ionization.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 176: 106037. 10.1016/j.sab.2020.106037. DOI

Klute, F. D. , Brandt S., Vogel P., et al. 2017. “Systematic Comparison Between Half and Full Dielectric Barrier Discharges Based on the Low‐Temperature Plasma Probe (LTP) and Dielectric Barrier Discharge for Soft Ionization (DBDI) Configurations.” Analytical Chemistry 89: 9368–9374. 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b02174. PubMed DOI

Knodel, A. , Foest D., Brandt S., et al. 2020a. “Detection and Evaluation of Lipid Classes and Other Hydrophobic Compounds Using a Laser Desorption/Plasma Ionization Interface.” Analytical Chemistry 92: 15212–15220. 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03839. PubMed DOI

Knodel, A. , Marggraf U., Ahlmann N., et al. 2020b. “Standardization of Sandwich‐Structured Cu–Glass Substrates Embedded in a Flexible Diode Laser–Plasma Interface for the Detection of Cholesterol.” Analytical Chemistry 92: 4663–4671. 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c00311. PubMed DOI

Kunze, K. , Miclea M., Franzke J., and Niemax K.. 2003. “The Dielectric Barrier Discharge as a Detector for Gas Chromatography.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 58: 1435–1443. 10.1016/s0584-8547(03)00104-6. DOI

Li, B. , Kong J., Yang L., Zhang L., Zhang Z., and Li C.. 2020. “Direct Detection of Chemical Warfare Agent Simulants in Soil by Thermal Desorption‐Low Temperature Plasma‐Mass Spectrometry.” International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 451: 116320. 10.1016/j.ijms.2020.116320. PubMed DOI

Li, D. , Li Z., Xu B., et al. 2022. “Thermal Desorption Bridged the Gap Between Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization and Dried Plasma Spot Samples for Sensitive and Rapid Detection of Fentanyl Analogs in Mass Spectrometry.” Analyst 147: 4187–4196. 10.1039/D2AN00946C. PubMed DOI

Li, X. , Ma W., Li H., Ai W., Bai Y., and Liu H.. 2018. “Sampling and Analyte Enrichment Strategies for Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 410: 715–724. 10.1007/s00216-017-0658-2. PubMed DOI

Liu, Q. , Lan J., Wu R., Begley A., Ge W., and Zenobi R.. 2022. “Hybrid Ionization Source Combining Nanoelectrospray and Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization for the Simultaneous Detection of Polar and Nonpolar Compounds in Single Cells.” Analytical Chemistry 94: 2873–2881. 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04759. PubMed DOI

Lu, Q. , Guan X., You X., Xu Z., and Zenobi R.. 2021a. “High‐Spatial Resolution Atmospheric Pressure Mass Spectrometry Imaging Using Fiber Probe Laser Ablation‐Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization.” Analytical Chemistry 93: 14694–14700. 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03055. PubMed DOI

Lu, Q. , Xu Z., You X., Ma S., and Zenobi R.. 2021b. “Atmospheric Pressure Mass Spectrometry Imaging Using Laser Ablation, Followed by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization.” Analytical Chemistry 93: 6232–6238. 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00549. PubMed DOI

Martens, T. , Bogaerts A., Brok W. J. M., and van der Mullen J. J. A. M.. 2007. “Modeling Study on the Influence of the Pressure on a Dielectric Barrier Discharge Microplasma.” Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 22: 1033–1042. 10.1039/B704903J. DOI

Martens, T. , Mihailova D., van Dijk J., and Bogaerts A.. 2009. “Theoretical Characterization of an Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharge Used for Analytical Spectrometry.” Analytical Chemistry 81: 9096–9108. 10.1021/ac9017742. PubMed DOI

Martínez‐Jarquín, S. , and Winkler R.. 2013. “Design of a Low‐Temperature Plasma (LTP) Probe With Adjustable Output Temperature and Variable Beam Diameter for the Direct Detection of Organic Molecules.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 27: 629–634. 10.1002/rcm.6494. PubMed DOI

Massaro, A. , Zacometti C., Bragolusi M., Buček J., Piro R., and Tata A.. 2024. “Authentication of the Botanical Origin of Monofloral Honey by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (DBDI‐HRMS). Breaching the 6 S Barrier of Analysis Time.” Food Control 160: 110330. 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110330. DOI

McDaniel, E. , Cermak V., Dalgarno A., Ferguson E., and Friedman L.. 1970. Ion‐Molecule Reactions. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

McFarland, M. , Albritton D. L., Fehsenfeld F. C., Ferguson E. E., and Schmeltekopf A. L.. 1973. “Flow‐Drift Technique for Ion Mobility and Ion‐Molecule Reaction Rate Constant Measurements. III. Negative Ion Reactions of O DOI

Michels, A. , Tombrink S., Vautz W., Miclea M., and Franzke J.. 2007. “Spectroscopic Characterization of a Microplasma Used as Ionization Source for Ion Mobility Spectrometry.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 62: 1208–1215. 10.1016/j.sab.2007.08.004. DOI

Miclea, M. , Kunze K., Musa G., Franzke J., and Niemax K.. 2001. “The Dielectric Barrier Discharge – a Powerful Microchip Plasma for Diode Laser Spectrometry.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 56: 37–43. 10.1016/s0584-8547(00)00286-x. DOI

Mirabelli, M. F. , Gionfriddo E., Pawliszyn J., and Zenobi R.. 2018. “A Quantitative Approach for Pesticide Analysis in Grape Juice by Direct Interfacing of a Matrix Compatible SPME Phase to Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization‐Mass Spectrometry.” Analyst 143: 891–899. 10.1039/C7AN01663H. PubMed DOI

Mirabelli, M. F. , Gionfriddo E., Pawliszyn J., and Zenobi R.. 2019. “Fast Screening of Illicit Drugs in Beverages and Biological Fluids by Direct Coupling of Thin Film Microextraction to Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization‐Mass Spectrometry.” Analyst 144: 2788–2796. 10.1039/C8AN02448K. PubMed DOI

Mirabelli, M. F. , Wolf J.‐C., and Zenobi R.. 2016. “Direct Coupling of Solid‐Phase Microextraction With Mass Spectrometry: Sub‐pg/g Sensitivity Achieved Using a Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Source.” Analytical Chemistry 88: 7252–7258. 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01507. PubMed DOI

Mirabelli, M. F. , Wolf J. C., and Zenobi R.. 2017. “Atmospheric Pressure Soft Ionization for Gas Chromatography With Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization‐Mass Spectrometry (GC‐DBDI‐MS).” Analyst 142: 1909–1915. 10.1039/c7an00245a. PubMed DOI

Müller, S. , Krähling T., Veza D., Horvatic V., Vadla C., and Franzke J.. 2013. “Operation Modes of the Helium Dielectric Barrier Discharge for Soft Ionization.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 85: 104–111. 10.1016/j.sab.2013.04.005. DOI

Na, N. , Xia Y., Zhu Z., Zhang X., and Cooks R. G.. 2009. “Birch Reduction of Benzene in a Low‐Temperature Plasma.” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 48: 2017–2019. 10.1002/anie.200805256. PubMed DOI

Na, N. , Zhao M., Zhang S., Yang C., and Zhang X.. 2007. “Development of a Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ion Source for Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 18: 1859–1862. 10.1016/j.jasms.2007.07.027. PubMed DOI

Nag, P. , and Nandi D.. 2018. “Study of Electron Beam Induced Ion‐Pair Dissociation Dynamics of O DOI

Nandi, D. , Prabhudesai V. S., and Krishnakumar E.. 2006. “Velocity Map Imaging for Low‐Energy Electron–Molecule Collisions.” Radiation Physics and Chemistry 75: 2151–2158. 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2006.02.016. DOI

Niu, G. , Knodel A., Burhenn S., Brandt S., and Franzke J.. 2021. “Review: Miniature Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry.” Analytica Chimica Acta 1147: 211–239. 10.1016/j.aca.2020.11.034. PubMed DOI

Nudnova, M. M. , Zhu L., and Zenobi R.. 2012. “Active Capillary Plasma Source for Ambient Mass Spectrometry.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 26: 1447–1452. 10.1002/rcm.6242. PubMed DOI

Nørgaard, A. W. , Kofoed‐Sørensen V., Svensmark B., Wolkoff P., and Clausen P. A.. 2013. “Gas Chromatography Interfaced With Atmospheric Pressure Ionization‐Quadrupole Time‐of‐Flight‐Mass Spectrometry by Low‐Temperature Plasma Ionization.” Analytical Chemistry 85: 28–32. 10.1021/ac301859r. PubMed DOI

Pack, J. L. , and Phelps A. V.. 1966. “Electron Attachment and Detachment. I. Pure O DOI

Pape, A. , and Schmitz O. J.. 2024. “Dielectric Barrier Discharge in Mass Spectrometry—An Overview Over Plasma Investigations and Ion Sources Applications.” TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 170: 117420. 10.1016/j.trac.2023.117420. DOI

Payzant, J. D. , and Kebarle P.. 1972. “Kinetics of Reactions Leading to O DOI

Phelps, A. V. , and Brown S. C.. 1952. “Positive Ions in the Afterglow of a Low‐Pressure Helium Discharge.” Physical Review 86: 102–105. 10.1103/PhysRev.86.102. DOI

Plasmion . 2020. Fast and Direct Detection of Explosives Using SICRIT®‐MS. Application Note. Plasmion GmbH.

Plasmion.com . 2024. https://plasmion.com/.

Raeber, J. , and Steuer C.. 2023. “Exploring New Dimensions: Single and Multi‐Block Analysis of Essential Oils Using DBDI‐MS and FT‐IR for Enhanced Authenticity Control.” Analytica Chimica Acta 1277: 341657. 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341657. PubMed DOI

Rapp, D. , and Briglia D. D.. 1965. “Total Cross Sections for Ionization and Attachment in Gases by Electron Impact. II. Negative‐Ion Formation.” Journal of Chemical Physics 43: 1480–1489. 10.1063/1.1696958. DOI

Rapp, D. , Englander‐Golden P., and Briglia D. D.. 1965. “Cross Sections for Dissociative Ionization of Molecules by Electron Impact.” Journal of Chemical Physics 42: 4081–4085. 10.1063/1.1695897. DOI

Rutherford, J. A. , and Turner B. R.. 1967. “The Production of NO DOI

Sabo, M. , Páleník J., Kučera M., et al. 2010. “Atmospheric Pressure Corona Discharge Ionisation and Ion Mobility Spectrometry/Mass Spectrometry Study of the Negative Corona Discharge in High Purity Oxygen and Oxygen/Nitrogen Mixtures.” International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 293: 23–27. 10.1016/j.ijms.2010.03.004. DOI

Saha, S. , Chen L. C., Mandal M. K., and Hiraoka K.. 2013. “Leidenfrost Phenomenon‐Assisted Thermal Desorption (LPTD) and Its Application to Open Ion Sources at Atmospheric Pressure Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 24: 341–347. 10.1007/s13361-012-0564-y. PubMed DOI

Schulz, G. J. 1962. “Cross Sections and Electron Affinity for O DOI

Shahin, M. M. 1966. “Mass‐Spectrometric Studies of Corona Discharges in Air at Atmospheric Pressures.” Journal of Chemical Physics 45: 2600–2605. 10.1063/1.1727980. DOI

Shahin, M. M. 1969. “Nature of Charge Carriers in Negative Coronas.” Applied Optics 8: 106–110. 10.1364/AO.8.S1.000106. PubMed DOI

Siegel, M. W. , and Fite W. L.. 1976. “Terminal Ions in Weak Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas. Applications of Atmospheric Pressure Ionization to Trace Impurity Analysis in Gases.” Journal of Physical Chemistry 80: 2871–2881. 10.1021/j100567a013. DOI

Siemens, W. 1857. “Ueber die Elektrostatische Induction und die Verzögerung des Stroms in Flaschendrähten.” Annalen der Physik 178: 66–122. 10.1002/andp.18571780905. DOI

Skalny, J. D. , Mikoviny T., Matejcik S., and Mason N. J.. 2004. “An Analysis of Mass Spectrometric Study of Negative Ions Extracted From Negative Corona Discharge in Air.” International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 233: 317–324. 10.1016/j.ijms.2004.01.012. DOI

Skalny, J. D. , Orszagh J., Mason N. J., Rees J. A., Aranda‐Gonzalvo Y., and Whitmore T. D.. 2008. “Mass Spectrometric Study of Negative Ions Extracted From Point to Plane Negative Corona Discharge in Ambient Air at Atmospheric Pressure.” International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 272: 12–21. 10.1016/j.ijms.2007.12.012. DOI

Smith, D. , Adams N. G., and Miller T. M.. 1978. “A Laboratory Study of the Reactions of N+, N2+, N3+, N4+, O+, O2+, and NO+ Ions With Several Molecules at 300 K.” Journal of Chemical Physics 69: 308–318. 10.1063/1.436354. DOI

Smith, D. , McEwan M. J., and Španěl P.. 2020. “Understanding Gas Phase Ion Chemistry Is the Key to Reliable Selected Ion Flow Tube‐Mass Spectrometry Analyses.” Analytical Chemistry 92: 12750–12762. 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03050. PubMed DOI

Smith, D. , and Spanel P.. 1995. “Ions in the Terrestrial Atmosphere and in Interstellar Clouds.” Mass Spectrometry Reviews 14: 255–278. 10.1002/mas.1280140403. DOI

Som, S. , Kubišta J., Dryahina K., and Španěl P.. 2021. “Parallel Secondary Electrospray Ionisation Mass Spectrometry and Selected Ion Flow Tube Mass Spectrometry Quantification of Trace Amounts of Volatile Ketones.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 35: e8981. 10.1002/rcm.8981. PubMed DOI

Speicher, L. , Song H., Ahlmann N., et al. 2024. “Soft Ionization Mechanisms in Flexible Μ‐Tube Plasma—From FµTP to Closed Μ‐Tube Plasma.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 416: 4919–4927. 10.1007/s00216-024-05420-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Spence, D. , and Schulz G. J.. 1972. “Three‐Body Attachment in O DOI

Stephan, K. , Märk T. D., Futrell J. H., and Helm H.. 1984. “Electron Impact Ionization of (N DOI

Stephens, E. R. , Dumlao M., Xiao D., Zhang D., and Donald W. A.. 2015. “Benzylammonium Thermometer Ions: Internal Energies of Ions Formed by Low Temperature Plasma and Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 26: 2081–2084. 10.1007/s13361-015-1272-1. PubMed DOI

Stevefelt, J. , Pouvesle J. M., and Bouchoule A.. 1982. “Reaction Kinetics of a High Pressure Helium Fast Discharge Afterglow.” Journal of Chemical Physics 76: 4006–4015. 10.1063/1.443521. DOI

Sugiyama, M. , Kumano S., Nishimura K., Hasegawa H., and Hashimoto Y.. 2013. “Sensitive Low‐Pressure Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ion Source.” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 27: 1005–1010. 10.1002/rcm.6546. PubMed DOI

Španěl, P. , Dryahina K., Omezzine Gnioua M., and Smith D.. 2023. “Different Reactivities of H PubMed DOI

Španěl, P. , and Smith D.. 2009. “Influence of Weakly Bound Adduct Ions on Breath Trace Gas Analysis by Selected Ion Flow Tube Mass Spectrometry (SIFT‐MS).” International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 280: 128–135. 10.1016/j.ijms.2008.07.021. DOI

Thaler, K. M. , Gilardi L., Weber M., et al. 2021. “HELIOS/SICRIT/mass Spectrometry for Analysis of Aerosols in Engine Exhaust.” Aerosol Science and Technology 55: 886–900. 10.1080/02786826.2021.1909699. DOI

Tian, C. , Song H., Ahlmann N., et al. 2024. “Soft Ionization Mechanisms in Flexible Μ‐Tube Plasma—Elucidation of He‐, Ar‐, Kr‐, and Xe‐FµTP.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 416: 4907–4918. 10.1007/s00216-024-05419-1. PubMed DOI PMC

Tsonev, I. , Boothroyd J., Kolev S., and Bogaerts A.. 2023. “Simulation of Glow and Arc Discharges in Nitrogen: Effects of the Cathode Emission Mechanisms.” Plasma Sources Science and Technology 32: 054002. 10.1088/1361-6595/acc96c. DOI

Usmanov, D. T. , Ninomiya S., and Hiraoka K.. 2013. “Flash Desorption/Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Less‐ and Nonvolatile Samples Using a Linearly Driven Heated Metal Filament.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 24: 1727–1735. 10.1007/s13361-013-0711-0. PubMed DOI

Vogel, P. , Lazarou C., Gazeli O., Brandt S., Franzke J., and Moreno‐González D.. 2020. “Study of Controlled Atmosphere Flexible Microtube Plasma Soft Ionization Mass Spectrometry for Detection of Volatile Organic Compounds as Potential Biomarkers in Saliva for Cancer.” Analytical Chemistry 92: 9722–9729. 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01063. PubMed DOI

Vogel, P. , Marggraf U., Brandt S., García‐Reyes J. F., and Franzke J.. 2019. “Analyte‐Tailored Controlled Atmosphere Improves Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry Performance.” Analytical Chemistry 91: 3733–3739. 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00112. PubMed DOI

Wang, C. , Li W., Lv Y., et al. 2020. “Rapid Analysis of Perfluorinated Carboxylic Acids in Textiles by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization‐Mass Spectrometry.” Microchemical Journal 155: 104773. 10.1016/j.microc.2020.104773. DOI

Weber, M. , Wolf J.‐C., and Haisch C.. 2021. “Gas Chromatography–Atmospheric Pressure Inlet–Mass Spectrometer Utilizing Plasma‐Based Soft Ionization for the Analysis of Saturated, Aliphatic Hydrocarbons.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 32: 1707–1715. 10.1021/jasms.0c00476. PubMed DOI

Weber, M. , Wolf J. C., and Haisch C.. 2023. “Effect of Dopants and Gas‐Phase Composition on Ionization Behavior and Efficiency in Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization.” Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 34: 538–549. 10.1021/jasms.2c00279. PubMed DOI

Winters, H. F. 1966. “Ionic Adsorption and Dissociation Cross Section for Nitrogen.” Journal of Chemical Physics 44: 1472–1476. 10.1063/1.1726879. DOI

Wolf, J.‐C. , Gyr L., Mirabelli M. F., Schaer M., Siegenthaler P., and Zenobi R.. 2016. “A Radical‐Mediated Pathway for the Formation of [M+H] PubMed DOI

Wolf, J. C. , Schaer M., Siegenthaler P., and Zenobi R.. 2015. “Direct Quantification of Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Compounds at Low ppt Levels: Comparing Active Capillary Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Ionization and Secondary Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical Chemistry 87: 723–729. 10.1021/ac5035874. PubMed DOI

Xiao, X. , Guan X., Xu Z., and Lu Q.. 2024. “In‐Situ Metabolic Profiling of Different Kinds of Rheum palmatum L. by Laser Desorption‐Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry Imaging.” Metabolites 14: 131. 10.3390/metabo14030131. PubMed DOI PMC

Yue, H. , He F., Zhao Z., and Duan Y.. 2023. “Plasma‐Based Ambient Mass Spectrometry: Recent Progress and Applications.” Mass Spectrometry Reviews 42: 95–130. 10.1002/mas.21712. PubMed DOI

Zhang, Y. , Ai W., Bai Y., et al. 2016. “An Interface for Online Coupling Capillary Electrophoresis to Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 408: 8655–8661. 10.1007/s00216-016-9822-3. PubMed DOI

Zhang, Z. , Qie M., Bai L., et al. 2024. “Rapid Authenticity Assessment of PGI Hongyuan Yak Milk Based on SICRIT‐QTOF MS.” Food Chemistry 442: 138444. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138444. PubMed DOI

Zhao, P. , and Wen L.. 2015. Patent: Ion Source and Ionization Method; CN105355535A.