Bacterial biofilms are complex multicellular communities that adhere firmly to solid surfaces. They are widely recognized as major threats to human health, contributing to issues such as persistent infections on medical implants and severe contamination in drinking water systems. As a potential treatment for biofilms, this work proposes two strategies: (i) light-driven ZnFe2O4 (ZFO)/Pt microrobots for photodegradation of biofilms and (ii) magnetically driven ZFO microrobots for mechanical removal of biofilms from surfaces. Magnetically driven ZFO microrobots were realized by synthesizing ZFO microspheres through a low-cost and large-scale hydrothermal synthesis, followed by a calcination process. Then, a Pt layer was deposited on the surface of the ZFO microspheres to break their symmetry, resulting in self-propelled light-driven Janus ZFO/Pt microrobots. Light-driven ZFO/Pt microrobots exhibited active locomotion under UV light irradiation and controllable motion in terms of "stop and go" features. Magnetically driven ZFO microrobots were capable of maneuvering precisely when subjected to an external rotating magnetic field. These microrobots could eliminate Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) biofilms through photogenerated reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related antibacterial properties in combination with their light-powered active locomotion, accelerating the mass transfer to remove biofilms more effectively in water. Moreover, the actuation of magnetically driven ZFO microrobots allowed for the physical disruption of biofilms, which represents a reliable alternative to photocatalysis for the removal of strongly anchored biofilms in confined spaces. With their versatile characteristics, the envisioned microrobots highlight a significant potential for biofilm removal with high efficacy in both open and confined spaces, such as the pipelines of industrial plants.

Advanced Nanorobots and Multiscale Robotics Laboratory Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science VSB─Technical University of Ostrava 17 Listopadu 2172 15 70800 Ostrava Czech Republic

Department of Medical Research China Medical University Hospital China Medical University No 91 Hsueh Shih Road TW 40402 Taichung Taiwan

Future Energy and Innovation Laboratory Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Purkynova 123 61200 Brno Czech Republic

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