Less than 1% of Earth's freshwater reserves is accessible. Industrialization, population growth and climate change are further exacerbating clean water shortage. Current water-remediation treatments fail to remove most pollutants completely or release toxic by-products into the environment. The use of self-propelled programmable micro- and nanoscale synthetic robots is a promising alternative way to improve water monitoring and remediation by overcoming diffusion-limited reactions and promoting interactions with target pollutants, including nano- and microplastics, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, oils and pathogenic microorganisms. This Review introduces the evolution of passive micro- and nanomaterials through active micro- and nanomotors and into advanced intelligent micro- and nanorobots in terms of motion ability, multifunctionality, adaptive response, swarming and mutual communication. After describing removal and degradation strategies, we present the most relevant improvements in water treatment, highlighting the design aspects necessary to improve remediation efficiency for specific contaminants. Finally, open challenges and future directions are discussed for the real-world application of smart micro- and nanorobots.

Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Brno Czech Republic

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Active Microrobots for Dual Removal of Biofilms via Chemical and Physical Mechanisms

On-the-Fly Monitoring of the Capture and Removal of Nanoplastics with Nanorobots

Single Atom Engineering for Nanorobotics

Magnetic Microrobot Swarms with Polymeric Hands Catching Bacteria and Microplastics in Water

Reconfigurable self-assembly of photocatalytic magnetic microrobots for water purification