Graphene, with its exceptional electronic, mechanical, and thermal properties, remains a cornerstone material for next-generation nanoelectronics. However, conventional lithographic approaches to graphene patterning are fraught with challenges, including contamination, alignment complexity, and scalability constraints. This review critically examines the evolving landscape of direct-write graphene technologies, focusing on forefront strategies such as focused electron beam-induced deposition (FEBID), polymer-to-graphene (P2G) conversion, focused ion beam (FIB) modification, and laser-assisted graphitisation. These techniques represent a departure from traditional top-down or transfer-based methods by enabling bottom-up, spatially resolved patterning without intermediary masking steps. Particular attention is devoted to the physicochemical mechanisms that underlie electron- and photon-mediated graphitisation, the role of precursor chemistry and substrate interactions, as well as the influence of beam parameters on sp2-carbon content and structural ordering. The review further delineates the limitations intrinsic to current methodologies, including partial graphitisation, resolution fidelity, and hardware constraints, and proposes a roadmap to achieve truly "direct" graphene writing. This includes in situ processing under controlled environments, advanced beam control systems, and the adoption of catalytic and graphitizable precursors. Collectively, this work provides a comprehensive foundation for the rational design of next-generation nanofabrication protocols and underscores the transformative potential of direct-write techniques in enabling scalable, high-fidelity graphene-based devices.

EBEAM Centre CNT CEET VŠB TUO Ostrava 708 00 Czechia

Faculty of Chemistry Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeze Wyspiarskiego 27 Wroclaw 50 370 Poland

Nanotechnology Centre CEET VŠB Technical University of Ostrava Ostrava 708 00 Czech Republic

Soochow Institute for Energy and Materials InnovationS Optoelectronics and Energy and Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Advanced Carbon Materials and Wearable Energy Technologies of Jiangsu Province School of Energy Soochow University Suzhou 215006 China

The Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden Helmholtzstr 20 D 01069 Dresden Germany

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Novoselov K. S., Geim A. K., Morozov S. V., Jiang D., Zhang Y., Dubonos S. V., Grigorieva I. V., Firsov A. A., Science 2004, 306, 666. PubMed

Geim A. K., Novoselov K. S., Nat. Mater. 2007, 6, 183. PubMed

Ganguly S., Sengupta J., Discover Nano 2024, 19, 110. PubMed PMC

Radsar T., Khalesi H., Ghods V., Opt. Quant. Electron. 2021, 53, 178.

Kang S., Chang J., Lim J., Kim D. J., Kim T.‐S., Choi K. C., Lee J. H., Kim S., Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 8288. PubMed PMC

Seo H.‐K., Lee T.‐W., Carbon Lett. 2013, 14, 145.

Serdaroğlu G., Carbon Dots: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives, American Chemical Society, Washington, USA: 2024, pp. 103–125.

Jiang Y., Guo F., Liu Y., Xu Z., Gao C., SusMat 2021, 1, 304.

Han S., Sun J., He S., Tang M., Chai R., Am. J. Transl. Res. 2019, 11, 3246. PubMed PMC

Florien N., Gupta S., Poria R., Chaudhary D., Poria R., Rawat T., Kaushal A., Springer NatureBerlin 2024, pp. 113–136.

Park Y.‐B., Jeong C., Guo L. J., Adv. Electron. Mater. 2022, 8, 2100970.

Lim S., Park H., Yamamoto G., Lee C., Suk J. W., Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2575. PubMed PMC

Datt Bhatt M., Kim H., Kim G., RSC Adv. 2022, 12, 21520. PubMed PMC

Kumar V., Kumar A., Lee D.‐J., Park S.‐S., Materials 2021, 14, 4590.

Klimchitskaya G. L., Mostepanenko V. M., Petrov V. M., Phys. Rev. B 2017, 96, 235432.

McCann E., in, Graphene Nanoelectronics: Metrology, Synthesis, Properties and Applications, (Ed.: Raza H.). Springer, Berlin Heidelberg: 2012, pp. 237–275.

Wu Y., Wang S., Komvopoulos K., J. Mater. Res. 2020, 35, 76.

Wolf E. L., Springer International Publishing, Berlin: 2014, pp. 1–18.

Tarhini A., Tehrani‐Bagha A. R., Appl. Compos. Mater. 2023, 30, 1737.

Warner J. H., Schäffel F., Rümmeli M. H., Büchner B., Chem. Mater. 2009, 21, 2418.

Robertson A. W., Montanari B., He K., Allen C. S., Wu Y. A., Harrison N. M., Kirkland A. I., Warner J. H., ACS Nano 2013, 7, 4495. PubMed

Tian W., Li W., Liu X., Wang Y., Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 79.

Yan Y., Nashath F. Z., Chen S., Manickam S., Lim S. S., Zhao H., Lester E., Wu T., Pang C. H., Nanotechnol. Rev. 2020, 9, 1284.

Shi Z., Schwingenschlögl U., J. Phys. Chem. C 2017, 121, 2459.

Majid M., Li L., Wang J., Shi Q., Ullah S., Zhang J., Liu X., Wang Z., Zhang C., Yang X., Bachmatiuk A., Martynkova G. S., Rummeli M. H., J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2025, 58, 153002.

Lu Y.‐F., Lo S.‐T., Lin J.‐C., Zhang W., Lu J.‐Y., Liu F.‐H., Tseng C.‐M., Lee Y.‐H., Liang C.‐T., Li L.‐J., ACS Nano 2013, 7, 6522. PubMed

Ullah S., Liu Y., Hasan M., Zeng W., Shi Q., Yang X., Fu L., Ta H. Q., Lian X., Sun J., Yang R., Liu L., Rümmeli M. H., Nano Res. 2022, 15, 1310.

Zhang W., Lu W.‐C., Zhang H.‐X., Ho K. M., Wang C. Z., Carbon 2018, 131, 137.

Yazyev O. V., Louie S. G., Phys. Rev. B 2010, 81, 195420.

Lehtinen O., Kurasch S., Krasheninnikov A. V., Kaiser U., Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2098. PubMed

Nikolaievskyi D., Torregrosa M., Merlen A., Clair S., Chuzel O., Parrain J. L., Neisus T., Campos A., Cabie M., Martin C., Pardanaud C., Carbon 2023, 203, 650.

Tiwari S. K., Pandey S. K., Pandey R., Wang N., Bystrzejewski M., Mishra Y. K., Zhu Y., Small 2023, 19, 2303340. PubMed

Lau C. N., Bockrath M. W., Mak K. F., Zhang F., Nature 2022, 602, 41. PubMed

Openov L. A., Podlivaev A. I., Phys. Solid State 2015, 57, 1477.

Karmakar S., Kundu S. K., Taki G. S., in 2021 5th Int. Conf. on Electronics, Materials Engineering & Nano‐Technology (IEMENTech) , IEEE, New York: 2021. pp. 1–3.

Rani P., Jindal V. K., RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 802.

Mendes R. G., Ta H. Q., Yang X., Li W., Bachmatiuk A., Choi J.‐H., Gemming T., Anasori B., Lijun L., Fu L., Liu Z., Rümmeli M. H., Small 2020, 16, e1907115. PubMed

Šedajová V., Kim M.‐B., Langer R., Kumar G. S., Liu L., Bad'ura Z., Haag J. V., Zoppellaro G., Zbořil R., Thallapally P. K., Jayaramulu K., Otyepka M., Small 2025, 21, 2408525. PubMed PMC

Wang X., Sun G., Routh P., Kim D.‐H., Huang W., Chen P., Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43, 7067. PubMed

Wang H.‐m., Wang H.‐x., Chen Y., Liu Y.‐j., Zhao J.‐x., Cai Q.‐h., Wang X.‐z., Appl. Surf. Sci. 2013, 273, 302.

Hasan M., Meiou W., Yulian L., Ta H. Q., Zhao L., Mendes R. G., Oswald S., Akhter Z., Malik Z. P., Ahmad N. M., Liu Z., Rümmeli M. H., Mater. Res. Express 2019, 6, 055604.

Yang Z., Yao Z., Li G., Fang G., Nie H., Liu Z., Zhou X., Chen X., Huang S., ACS Nano 2012, 6, 205. PubMed

Hrubý V., Zdražil L., Dzíbelová J., Šedajová V., Bakandritsos A., Lazar P., Otyepka M., Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022, 587, 152839.

Li B., Zhou L., Wu D., Peng H., Yan K., Zhou Y., Liu Z., ACS Nano 2011, 5, 5957. PubMed

Zhang X., Hsu A., Wang H., Song Y., Kong J., Dresselhaus M. S., Palacios T., ACS Nano 2013, 7, 7262. PubMed

Santos E. J. G., Sánchez‐Portal D., Ayuela A., Phys. Rev. B 2010, 81, 125433.

Elias D. C., Nair R. R., Mohiuddin T. M. G., Morozov S. V., Blake P., Halsall M. P., Ferrari A. C., Boukhvalov D. W., Katsnelson M. I., Geim A. K., Novoselov K. S., Science 2009, 323, 610. PubMed

Balog R., Jørgensen B., Nilsson L., Andersen M., Rienks E., Bianchi M., Fanetti M., Lægsgaard E., Baraldi A., Lizzit S., Sljivancanin Z., Besenbacher F., Hammer B., Pedersen T. G., Hofmann P., Hornekær L., Nat. Mater. 2010, 9, 315. PubMed

Parret R., Paillet M., Huntzinger J.‐R., Nakabayashi D., Michel T., Tiberj A., Sauvajol J.‐L., Zahab A. A., ACS Nano 2013, 7, 165. PubMed

Eldeeb M. S., Fadlallah M. M., Martyna G. J., Maarouf A. A., Carbon 2018, 133, 369.

Su X., Xue Z., Li G., Yu P., Nano Lett. 2018, 18, 5744. PubMed

Schuepfer D. B., Badaczewski F., Guerra‐Castro J. M., Hofmann D. M., Heiliger C., Smarsly B., Klar P. J., Carbon 2020, 161, 359.

Wallace P. R., Phys. Rev. 1947, 71, 622.

Semenoff G. W., Phys. Rev. Letters 1984, 53, 2449.

Bohr J., Europhys. Lett. 2015, 109, 58004.

Zhu C., Ekinci H., Pan A., Cui B., Zhu X., Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2024, 10, 1. PubMed PMC

Abbas Q., Shinde P. A., Abdelkareem M. A., Alami A. H., Mirzaeian M., Yadav A., Olabi A. G., Materials 2022, 15, 7804. PubMed PMC

Quintana M., Tapia J. I., Prato M., Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 2328. PubMed PMC

Bourlinos A. B., Georgakilas V., Zboril R., Steriotis T. A., Stubos A. K., Trapalis C., Solid State Commun. 2009, 149, 2172.

Du W., Jiang X., Zhu L., J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 10592.

Hernandez Y., Nicolosi V., Lotya M., Blighe F. M., Sun Z., De S., McGovern I. T., Holland B., Byrne M., Gun'Ko Y. K., Boland J. J., Niraj P., Duesberg G., Krishnamurthy S., Goodhue R., Hutchison J., Scardaci V., Ferrari A. C., Coleman J. N., Nat. Nanotechnol. 2008, 3, 563. PubMed

Coleman J. N., Adv. Funct. Mater. 2009, 19, 3680.

Backes C., Szydłowska B. M., Harvey A., Yuan S., Vega‐Mayoral V., Davies B. R., Zhao P.‐l., Hanlon D., Santos E. J. G., Katsnelson M. I., Blau W. J., Gadermaier C., Coleman J. N., ACS Nano 2016, 10, 1589. PubMed

Dreyer D. R., Park S., Bielawski C. W., Ruoff R. S., Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 39, 228. PubMed

Zakaria F. C., Kabeb S. M., Bakar N. H. A., Surf. Interfaces 2025, 70, 106826.

Adotey E., Kurbanova A., Ospanova A., Ardakkyzy A., Toktarbay Z., Kydyrbay N., Zhazitov M., Nuraje N., Toktarbaiuly O., Nanomaterials 2025, 15, 363. PubMed PMC

Parvez K., Li R., Puniredd S. R., Hernandez Y., Hinkel F., Wang S., Feng X., Müllen K., ACS Nano 2013, 7, 3598. PubMed

Qiu Z., Liu Z., Mei J., Han J., Zheng F., Huang Y., Wang H., Li Q., Jiang J., ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2025, 13, 2706.

Jiwarawat N., Leukulwatanachai T., Subhakornphichan K., Limwathanagura S., Wanotayan S., Atthi N., Pankiew A., Pungetmongkol P., Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 15892. PubMed PMC

Liu N., Luo F., Wu H., Liu Y., Zhang C., Chen J., Adv. Funct. Mater. 2008, 18, 1518.

Zhang D., Sasidharan S., Shi J., Sasikala Devi A. A., Su J., Huang J., Xia Z., ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2023, 6, 19639. PubMed PMC

Sun Z., Yan Z., Yao J., Beitler E., Zhu Y., Tour J. M., Nature 2010, 468, 549. PubMed

Sun Z., Yan Z., Yao J., Beitler E., Zhu Y., Tour J. M., Nature 2011, 471, 124. PubMed

Ta H. Q., Zhao L., Yin W., Pohl D., Rellinghaus B., Gemming T., Trzebicka B., Palisaitis J., Jing G., Persson P. O. Å., Liu Z., Bachmatiuk A., Rümmeli M. H., Nano Res. 2018, 11, 2405.

Emtsev K. V., Bostwick A., Horn K., Jobst J., Kellogg G. L., Ley L., McChesney J. L., Ohta T., Reshanov S. A., Röhrl J., Rotenberg E., Schmid A. K., Waldmann D., Weber H. B., Seyller T., Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 203. PubMed

Vishwakarma R., Rosmi M. S., Takahashi K., Wakamatsu Y., Yaakob Y., Araby M. I., Kalita G., Kitazawa M., Tanemura M., Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 43756. PubMed PMC

Roy A., Kar S., Ghosal R., Naskar K., Bhowmick A. K., ACS Omega 2021, 6, 1809. PubMed PMC

Hähnlein B., Lebedev S. P., Eliseyev I. A., Smirnov A. N., Davydov V. Y., Zubov A. V., Lebedev A. A., Pezoldt J., Carbon 2020, 170, 666.

Hou Y., Stehle R. C., Qing F., Li X., Adv. Mater. Technol. 2023, 8, 2200596.

Yu K., Tian H., Li R., Hao L., Zhang K., Zhu X., Ma Y., Ma L., ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2023, 5, 5187.

Kondrashov I. I., Rybin M. G., Obraztsova E. A., Obraztsova E. D., phys. status solidi (b) 2019, 256, 1800688.

Shang M., Bu S., Hu Z., Zhao Y., Liao J., Zheng C., Liu W., Lu Q., Li F., Wu H., Shi Z., Zhu Y., Xu Z., Guo B., Yu B., Li C., Zhang X., Xie Q., Yin J., Jia K., Peng H., Lin L., Liu Z., Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2402000. PubMed

Kathalingam A., Vikraman D., Karuppasamy K., Kim H.‐S., Ceram. Int. 2022, 48, 28906.

Esmaeilpour M., Bügel P., Fink K., Studt F., Wenzel W., Kozlowska M., Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 8563. PubMed PMC

Müller E., Hugenschmidt M., Gerthsen D., Phys. Rev. Res. 2020, 2, 043313.

Utke I., Swiderek P., Höflich K., Madajska K., Jurczyk J., Martinović P., Szymańska I., Coord. Chem. Rev. 2022, 458, 213851.

Utke I., Michler J., Winkler R., Plank H., Micromachines 2020, 11, 397. PubMed PMC

Franklin R. E., Randall J. T., Proc. Royal Soc. London. Series A. Math. Phys. Sci. 1997, 209, 196.

Monthioux M., Oberlin M., Oberlin A., Bourrat X., Boulet R., Carbon 1982, 20, 167.

Monthioux M., Carbon Trends 2024, 14, 100325.

Ghazinejad M., Holmberg S., Pilloni O., Oropeza‐Ramos L., Madou M., Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 16551. PubMed PMC

Francas G. R., Martin J. W., Suarez‐Martinez I., Marks N. A., Carbon 2023, 213, 118251.

Martin J. W., Fogg J. L., Francas G. R., Putman K. J., Turner E. P., Suarez‐Martinez I., Marks N. A., Carbon 2023, 215, 118386.

Bi K., Mu J., Geng W., Mei L., Zhou S., Niu Y., Fu W., Tan L., Han S., Chou X., Materials 2021, 14, 4634. PubMed PMC

Gonzalez‐Martinez I. G., Bachmatiuk A., Bezugly V., Kunstmann J., Gemming T., Liu Z., Cuniberti G., Rümmeli M. H., Nanoscale 2016, 8, 11340. PubMed

Hsu S.‐C., Li Y., Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2014, 9, 633. PubMed PMC

Byun S.‐J., Lim H., Shin G.‐Y., Han T.‐H., Oh S. H., Ahn J.‐H., Choi H. C., Lee T.‐W., J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2011, 2, 493.

Jo H. J., Lyu J. H., Ruoff R. S., Lim H., Yoon S. I., Jeong H. Y., Shin T. J., Bielawski C. W., Shin H. S., 2D Mater. 2016, 4, 014005.

Schindler S., Vollnhals F., Halbig C. E., Marbach H., Steinrück H.‐P., Papp C., Eigler S., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2017, 19, 2683. PubMed

Turchanin A., Gölzhäuser A., Prog. Surf. Sci. 2012, 87, 108.

Asyuda A., de la Morena R. O., Sauter E., Turner K., McDonald K., Buck M., Zharnikov M., J. Phys. Chem. C 2020, 124, 25107.

Weimann T., Geyer W., Hinze P., Stadler V., Eck W., Gölzhäuser A., Microelectron. Eng. 2001, 57‐58, 903.

Tsarapkin A., Maćkosz K., Jureddy C. S., Utke I., Höflich K., Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2313571. PubMed

T P R. K., Unlu I., Barth S., Ingólfsson O., Fairbrother D. H., J. Phys. Chem. C 2018, 122, 2648.

Rummeli M. H., Pan Y., Zhao L., Gao J., Ta H. Q., Martinez I. G., Mendes R. G., Gemming T., Fu L., Bachmatiuk A., Liu Z., Materials 2018, 11, 896. PubMed PMC

Kiyohara S., Takamatsu H., Mori K., Semicond. Sci. Technol. 2002, 17, 1096.

Huth M., Porrati F., Barth S., J. Appl. Phys. 2021, 130, 170901.

Danylo I., Koláčný L., Kissíková K., Hartman T., Pitínová M., Šturala J., Sofer Z., Veselý M., Nanoscale Adv. 2025, 7, 2021. PubMed PMC

Huth M., Porrati F., Gruszka P., Barth S., Micromachines 2020, 11, 28. PubMed PMC

Barth S., Huth M., Jungwirth F., J. Mater. Chem. C 2020, 8, 15884.

Porrati F., Sachser R., Schwalb C. H., Frangakis A. S., Huth M., J. Appl. Phys. 2011, 109, 063715.

Ervin M. H., Chang D., Nichols B., Wickenden A., Barry J., Melngailis J., J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B: Microelectron. Nanometer Struct. Processing, Measurement, Phenomena 2007, 25, 2250.

Puydinger Dos Santos M. V., Velo M. F., Domingos R. D., Zhang Y., Maeder X., Guerra‐Nuñez C., Best J. P., Béron F., Pirota K. R., Moshkalev S., Diniz J. A., Utke I., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2016, 8, 32496. PubMed

Telkhozhayeva M., Girshevitz O., Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2404615.

Kretschmer S., Maslov M., Ghaderzadeh S., Ghorbani‐Asl M., Hlawacek G., Krasheninnikov A. V., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 30827. PubMed

Kim S., Dyck O., Ievlev A. V., Vlassiouk I. V., Kalinin S. V., Belianinov A., Jesse S., Ovchinnikova O. S., Carbon 2018, 138, 277.

Allen F. I., Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 633. PubMed PMC

Åhlgren E. H., Kotakoski J., Krasheninnikov A. V., Phys. Rev. B 2011, 83, 115424.

Archanjo B. S., Barboza A. P. M., Neves B. R. A., Malard L. M., Ferreira E. H. M., Brant J. C., Alves E. S., Plentz F., Carozo V., Fragneaud B., Maciel I. O., Almeida C. M., Jorio A., Achete C. A., Nanotechnology 2012, 23, 255305. PubMed

Buchheim J., Wyss R. M., Shorubalko I., Park H. G., Nanoscale 2016, 8, 8345. PubMed

Kalhor N., Boden S. A., Mizuta H., Microelectron. Eng. 2014, 114, 70.

Liu F., Muruganathan M., Ogawa S., Morita Y., Wang Z., Schmidt M., Mizuta H., in 2021 5th IEEE Electron Devices Technology & Manufacturing Conference (EDTM) , IEEE, New York: 2021. pp. 1–3.

Schmidt M. E., Muruganathan M., Kanzaki T., Iwasaki T., Hammam A. M. M., Suzuki S., Ogawa S., Mizuta H., Small 2019, 15, 1903025. PubMed

Liu F., Wang Z., Nakanao S., Ogawa S., Morita Y., Schmidt M., Haque M., Muruganathan M., Mizuta H., Micromachines 2020, 11, 387. PubMed PMC

Yuan Z., Lin Y., Hu J., Wang C., Biosensors 2024, 14, 158. PubMed PMC

Singleton D. L., Paraskevopoulos G., Irwin R. S., J. Appl. Phys. 1989, 66, 3324.

Yu H., Gai M., Liu L., Chen F., Bian J., Huang Y., Soft Science 2023, 3, 4. PubMed PMC

Lin J., Peng Z., Liu Y., Ruiz‐Zepeda F., Ye R., Samuel E. L. G., Yacaman M. J., Yakobson B. I., Tour J. M., Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 5714. PubMed PMC

Wang L., Wang Z., Bakhtiyari A. N., Zheng H., Micromachines 2020, 11, 1094. PubMed PMC

Ye R., Chyan Y., Zhang J., Li Y., Han X., Kittrell C., Tour J. M., Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1702211. PubMed

Chen Z., Ren W., Gao L., Liu B., Pei S., Cheng H.‐M., Nat. Mater. 2011, 10, 424. PubMed

Huang F., Feng G., Yin J., Zhou S., Shen L., Wang S., Luo Y., Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2547. PubMed PMC

Liu H., Chen Y., Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 11233.

Babu S. V., D'Couto G. C., Egitto F. D., J. Appl. Phys. 1992, 72, 692.

Vivaldi F. M., Dallinger A., Bonini A., Poma N., Sembranti L., Biagini D., Salvo P., Greco F., Di Francesco F., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 30245. PubMed PMC

Liu Y.‐W., He L., Quant. Front. 2023, 2, 2.

Cortés‐del Río E., Mallet P., González‐Herrero H., Lado J. L., Fernández‐Rossier J., Gómez‐Rodríguez J. M., Veuillen J.‐Y., Brihuega I., Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2001119. PubMed

Zhang Y., Gao F., Gao S., He L., Sci. Bull. 2020, 65, 194. PubMed

González‐Herrero H., Gómez‐Rodríguez J. M., Mallet P., Moaied M., Palacios J. J., Salgado C., Ugeda M. M., Veuillen J.‐Y., Yndurain F., Brihuega I., Science 2016, 352, 437. PubMed

Levy N., Burke S. A., Meaker K. L., Panlasigui M., Zettl A., Guinea F., Neto A. H. C., Crommie M. F., Science 2010, 329, 544. PubMed

Jia P., Chen W., Qiao J., Zhang M., Zheng X., Xue Z., Liang R., Tian C., He L., Di Z., Wang X., Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 3127. PubMed PMC

Hsu C.‐C., Teague M. L., Wang J.‐Q., Yeh N.‐C., Sci. Adv. 2020, 6, 19. PubMed PMC

Shi H., Zhan Z., Qi Z., Huang K., Veen E. v., Silva‐Guillén J. n., Zhang R., Li P., Xie K., Ji H., Katsnelson M. I., Yuan S., Qin S., Zhang Z., Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 371. PubMed PMC

Gutiérrez C., Brown L., Kim C.‐J., Park J., Pasupathy A. N., Nat. Phys. 2016, 12, 1069.

Zhao Y., Wyrick J., Natterer F. D., Rodriguez‐Nieva J. F., Lewandowski C., Watanabe K., Taniguchi T., Levitov L. S., Zhitenev N. B., Stroscio J. A., Science 2015, 348, 672. PubMed

Ghahari F., Walkup D., Gutiérrez C., Rodriguez‐Nieva J. F., Zhao Y., Wyrick J., Natterer F. D., Cullen W. G., Watanabe K., Taniguchi T., Levitov L. S., Zhitenev N. B., Stroscio J. A., Science 2017, 356, 845. PubMed PMC

Zheng Q., Zhuang Y.‐C., Sun Q.‐F., He L., Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 1597. PubMed PMC

Mao J., Milovanović S. P., Anðelković M., Lai X., Cao Y., Watanabe K., Taniguchi T., Covaci L., Peeters F. M., Geim A. K., Jiang Y., Andrei E. Y., Nature 2020, 584, 215. PubMed

Vincenti L., Pellegrino P., Cascione M., De Matteis V., Farella I., Quaranta F., Rinaldi R., Mater.Design 2024, 243, 113036.

Takeguchi M., Shimojo M., Mitsuishi K., Tanaka M., Furuya K., Superlattices Microstruct. 2004, 36, 255.