Holobionts - hosts together with their resident microorganisms - provide a framework for studying life as a network of interdependent partners. Within host-ectoparasite holobionts, the dialogue between the two microbiomes offers powerful clues to ecological balance, disease dynamics and evolution. Because each holobiont is structurally and functionally compartmentalised, microbes exchanged at the interface can elicit highly local, niche-specific effects that ripple through the system. This review synthesises evidence for microbiota-to-microbiota interactions in four models: Varroa mite-honeybee, tick-vertebrate, bat fly-bat and mosquito-vertebrate pairs. In all cases, microbes move passively during feeding or contact, then colonise, replicate and modulate physiology and immunity, exerting a longer-lasting influence than transient biochemical cues. We further introduce the idea of indirect modulation, whereby abiotic or biotic factors act on a recipient holobiont through the intermediary of transferred microbes, underscoring the adaptive plasticity of holobiont networks. Bidirectional cross-talk forms self-reinforcing feedback loops that can redefine a microbe as pathogen, symbiont or immunomodulator, and tune its virulence according to context. These mechanisms shape disease transmission, resistance traits and the overall health of both partners. A deeper grasp of such cross-holobiont dynamics will pave the way for microbiota-based vaccines, targeted microbiome engineering and other innovative tools for human, veterinary and environmental health.

Department of Animal Breeding and Animal Production University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj Napoca Napoca Romania

Department of Animal Physiology Institute of Biology and Ecology Faculty of Science Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice Košice Slovakia

Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj Napoca Napoca Romania

Direction of Animal Health National Center for Animal and Plant Health Carretera de Tapaste y Autopista Nacional Apartado Postal 10 32700 San José de Las Lajas Mayabeque Cuba

Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czech Republic

Institute for Insect Biotechnology Justus Liebig University of Giessen Giessen Germany

Laboratory of Microbiology National School of Veterinary Medicine of Sidi Thabet University of Manouba 2010 Manouba Tunisia

Parasitology Laboratory Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca Cordel de Merinas 40 52 37008 Salamanca Spain

School of Environmental Sciences University of Guelph Guelph ON Canada

State Scientific Research Institute Nature Research Centre Akademijos G 2 Vilnius Lithuania

UMR BIPAR Laboratoire de Santé Animale ANSES INRAE Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort 94700 Maisons Alfort France

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