Arowanas (Osteoglossinae) are charismatic freshwater fishes with six species and two genera (Osteoglossum and Scleropages) distributed in South America, Asia, and Australia. In an attempt to provide a better assessment of the processes shaping their evolution, we employed a set of cytogenetic and genomic approaches, including i) molecular cytogenetic analyses using C- and CMA3/DAPI staining, repetitive DNA mapping, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), and Zoo-FISH, along with ii) the genotypic analyses of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) generated by diversity array technology sequencing (DArTseq). We observed diploid chromosome numbers of 2n = 56 and 54 in O. bicirrhosum and O. ferreirai, respectively, and 2n = 50 in S. formosus, while S. jardinii and S. leichardti presented 2n = 48 and 44, respectively. A time-calibrated phylogenetic tree revealed that Osteoglossum and Scleropages divergence occurred approximately 50 million years ago (MYA), at the time of the final separation of Australia and South America (with Antarctica). Asian S. formosus and Australian Scleropages diverged about 35.5 MYA, substantially after the latest terrestrial connection between Australia and Southeast Asia through the Indian plate movement. Our combined data provided a comprehensive perspective of the cytogenomic diversity and evolution of arowana species on a timescale.

Departamento de Biologia Celular e Genética Centro de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte Natal RN 59078 970 Brazil

Departamento de Genética e Evolução Universidade Federal de São Carlos São Carlos SP 13565 090 Brazil

Institute for Applied Ecology University of Canberra Canberra ACT 2617 Australia

Institute of Human Genetics University Hospital Jena 07747 Jena Germany

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia Coordenação de Biodiversidade Laboratório de Genética Animal Petrópolis Manaus AM 69077 000 Brazil

Laboratory of Fish Genetics Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Czech Academy of Sciences 27721 Liběchov Czech Republic

School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang 11800 Malaysia

Secretaria de Estado de Educação de Mato Grosso SEDUC MT Cuiabá MT 78049 909 Brazil

Toxic Substances in Livestock and Aquatic Animals Research Group KhonKaen University Muang KhonKaen 40002 Thailand

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