Animals have always played an important role in our everyday life. They are given more attention than inanimate objects, which have been adaptive during the evolution of mankind, with some animal species still presenting a real threat to us. In this study, we focused on the species usually evaluated as the scariest and most disgusting in the animal kingdom. We analyzed which characteristics (e.g., weight, potential threat for humans) influence their evaluation in a nonclinical Central European WEIRD population (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic). The tested animals were divided into two separated sets containing 34 standardized photos evoking predominantly one negative emotion, fear or disgust. The pictures were ranked according to their emotional intensity by 160 adult respondents with high inter-rater agreement. The most fear-eliciting species are mostly large vertebrates (e.g., carnivorans, ungulates, sharks, crocodiles), whereas smaller fear-evoking vertebrates are represented by snakes and invertebrates are represented by arachnids. The most disgust-evoking animals are human endo- and ectoparasites or animals visually resembling them. Humans emotionally react to fear-evoking animals that represent a real threat; however, identifying truly dangerous disgust-evoking animals might be harder. The results also support a somewhat special position of snakes and spiders.

Department of Zoology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Viničná 7 128 43 Prague Czech Republic

National Institute of Mental Health Topolová 748 250 67 Klecany Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Wilson E.O. Biofilia, Trad. It. Volume 189 Mondadori; Milano, Italy: 1985.

Mormann F., Dubois J., Kornblith S., Milosavljevic M., Cerf M., Ison M., Fried I. A category-specific response to animals in the right human amygdala. Nat. Neurosci. 2011;14:1247–1249. doi: 10.1038/nn.2899. PubMed DOI PMC

Yang J., Bellgowan P.S., Martin A. Threat, domain-specificity and the human amygdala. Neuropsychologia. 2012;50:2566–2572. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.07.001. PubMed DOI PMC

New J., Cosmides L., Tooby J. Category-specific attention for animals reflects ancestral priorities, not expertise. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2007;104:16598–16603. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0703913104. PubMed DOI PMC

Headland T.N., Greene H.W. Hunter–gatherers and other primates as prey, predators, and competitors of snakes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2011;108:E1470–E1474. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1115116108. PubMed DOI PMC

Njau J.K., Blumenschine R.J. Crocodylian and mammalian carnivore feeding traces on hominid fossils from FLK 22 and FLK NN 3, Plio-Pleistocene, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. J. Hum. Evol. 2012;63:408–417. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.05.008. PubMed DOI

Öhman A., Flykt A., Esteves F. Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2001;130:466. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466. PubMed DOI

Yorzinski J.L., Penkunas M.J., Platt M.L., Coss R.G. Dangerous animals capture and maintain attention in humans. Evol. Psychol. 2014;12:534–548. doi: 10.1177/147470491401200304. PubMed DOI

Ekman P., Cordaro D. What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emot. Rev. 2011;3:364–370. doi: 10.1177/1754073911410740. DOI

Woody S.R., Teachman B.A. Intersection of disgust and fear: Normative and pathological views. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 2000;7:291–311. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.7.3.291. DOI

Curtis V., De Barra M., Aunger R. Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2011;366:389–401. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0117. PubMed DOI PMC

Davey G.C.L., Marzillier S. Disgust and animal phobias. In: Olatunji B.O., McKay D., editors. Disgust and Its Disorders: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment Implication. American Psychological Association; Washington, DC, USA: 2009. pp. 169–190. DOI

Davey G.C. Disgust: The disease-avoidance emotion and its dysfunctions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2011;366:3453–3465. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0039. PubMed DOI PMC

Fredrikson M., Annas P., Fischer H., Wik G. Gender and age differences in the prevalence of specific fears and phobias. Behav. Res. Ther. 1996;34:33–39. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(95)00048-3. PubMed DOI

LeBeau R.T., Glenn D., Liao B., Wittchen H.U., Beesdo-Baum K., Ollendick T., Craske M.G. Specific phobia: A review of DSM-IV specific phobia and preliminary recommendations for DSM-V. Depress. Anxiety. 2010;27:148–167. doi: 10.1002/da.20655. PubMed DOI

Oosterink F.M., De Jongh A., Hoogstraten J. Prevalence of dental fear and phobia relative to other fear and phobia subtypes. Eur. J. Oral Sci. 2009;117:135–143. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2008.00602.x. PubMed DOI

Klorman R., Weerts T.C., Hastings J.E., Melamed B.G., Lang P.J. Psychometric description of some specific-fear questionnaires. Behav. Ther. 1974;5:401–409. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7894(74)80008-0. DOI

Polák J., Sedláčková K., Nácar D., Landová E., Frynta D. Fear the serpent: A psychometric study of snake phobia. Psychiatry Res. 2016;242:163–168. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.024. PubMed DOI

Ware J., Jain K., Burgess I., Davey G.C. Disease-avoidance model: Factor analysis of common animal fears. Behav. Res. Ther. 1994;32:57–63. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)90084-1. PubMed DOI

Davey G.C. Self-reported fears to common indigenous animals in an adult UK population: The role of disgust sensitivity. Br. J. Psychol. 1994;85:541–554. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1994.tb02540.x. PubMed DOI

Matchett G., Davey G.C. A test of a disease-avoidance model of animal phobias. Behav. Res. Ther. 1991;29:91–94. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(09)80011-9. PubMed DOI

Tucker M., Bond N.W. The roles of gender, sex role, and disgust in fear of animals. Personal. Individ. Differ. 1997;22:135–138. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00168-7. DOI

Rádlová S., Janovcová M., Sedláčková K., Polák J., Nácar D., Peléšková Š., Frynta D., Landová E. Snakes represent emotionally salient stimuli that may evoke both fear and disgust. Front. Psychol. 2019;10:1085. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01085. PubMed DOI PMC

Landová E., Marešová J., Šimková O., Cikánová V., Frynta D. Human responses to live snakes and their photographs: Evaluation of beauty and fear of the king snakes. J. Environ. Psychol. 2012;32:69–77. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.10.005. DOI

Frynta D., Peléšková Š., Rádlová S., Janovcová M., Landová E. Human evaluation of amphibian species: A comparison of disgust and beauty. Sci. Nat. 2019;106 doi: 10.1007/s00114-019-1635-8. PubMed DOI

Janovcová M., Rádlová S., Polák J., Sedláčková K., Peléšková Š., Žampachová B., Frynta D., Landová E. Human attitude toward reptiles: A relationship between fear, disgust, and aesthetic preferences. Animals. 2019;9:238. doi: 10.3390/ani9050238. PubMed DOI PMC

Prokop P., Uşak M., Erdoğan M., Fančovičová J., Bahar M. Slovakian and Turkish students’ fear, disgust and perceived danger of invertebrates. [(accessed on 24 September 2020)];Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 2011 40:344–352. Available online: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/hunefd/issue/7796/102081.

Marešová J., Frynta D. Noah’s Ark is full of common species attractive to humans: The case of boid snakes in zoos. Ecol. Econ. 2008;64:554–558. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.03.012. DOI

Landová E., Bakhshaliyeva N., Janovcová M., Peléšková Š., Suleymanova M., Polák J., Guliev A., Frynta D. Association between fear and beauty evaluation of snakes: Cross cultural findings. Front. Psychol. 2018;9:333. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00333. PubMed DOI PMC

Lišková S., Frynta D. What determines bird beauty in human eyes? Anthrozoös. 2013;26:27–41. doi: 10.2752/175303713X13534238631399. DOI

Landová E., Poláková P., Rádlová S., Janovcová M., Bobek M., Frynta D. Beauty ranking of mammalian species kept in the Prague Zoo: Does beauty of animals increase the respondents’ willingness to protect them? Sci. Nat. 2018;105:69. doi: 10.1007/s00114-018-1596-3. PubMed DOI

Frynta D., Šimková O., Lišková S., Landová E. Mammalian collection on Noah’s ark: The effects of beauty, brain and body size. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e63110. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063110. PubMed DOI PMC

Possidónio C., Graça J., Piazza J., Prada M. Animal images database: Validation of 120 images for human-animal studies. Animals. 2019;9:475. doi: 10.3390/ani9080475. PubMed DOI PMC

Polák J., Rádlová S., Janovcová M., Flegr J., Landová E., Frynta D. Scary and nasty beasts: Self-reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals. Br. J. Psychol. 2020;111:297–321. doi: 10.1111/bjop.12409. PubMed DOI

Peléšková Š. Master’s Thesis. Charles University; Prague, Czech Republic: 2016. Positive and Negative Attitudes towards Animals.

Polák J., Sedláčková K., Frynta D., Landová E. Standardization and psychometric characteristics of two spider fear assessments. Unpublished data.

Haidt J., McCauley C., Rozin P. Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personal. Individ. Differ. 1994;16:701–713. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7. DOI

Olatunji B.O., Williams N.L., Tolin D.F., Abramowitz J.S., Sawchuk C.N., Lohr J.M., Elwood L.S. The Disgust Scale: Item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement. Psychol. Assess. 2007;19:281. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.281. PubMed DOI

Polák J., Landová E., Frynta D. Undisguised disgust: A psychometric evaluation of a disgust propensity measure. Curr. Psychol. 2019;38:608–617. doi: 10.1007/s12144-018-9925-4. DOI

Marešová J., Krása A., Frynta D. We all appreciate the same animals: Cross cultural comparison of human aesthetic preferences for snake species in Papua New Guinea and Europe. Ethology. 2009;115:297–300. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01620.x. DOI

Lišková S., Landová E., Frynta D. Human preferences for colorful birds: Vivid colors or pattern? Evol. Psychol. 2015;13 doi: 10.1177/147470491501300203. PubMed DOI

Pohlert T. The Pairwise Multiple Comparison of Mean Ranks Package (PMCMR). R Package 2014. [(accessed on 24 September 2020)]; Available online: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=PMCMR.

Oksanen J., Blanchet F.G., Friendly M., Kindt R., Legendre P., McGlinn D. Vegan: Community Ecology Package. R Package Version 2.4–5 2017. [(accessed on 24 September 2020)]; Available online: https://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=vegan.

R Development Core Team . R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing; Vienna, Austria: 2010.

StatSoft Inc. Statistica (Data Analysis Software System), Version 13. [(accessed on 20 July 2020)]; Available online: http://www.statsoft.com/

Rozin P., Haidt J., Fincher K. From oral to moral. Science. 2009;323:1179–1180. doi: 10.1126/science.1170492. PubMed DOI

Hart D. Predation on primates: A biogeographical analysis. In: Gursky S.L., Nekaris K.A.I., editors. Primate Anti-Predator Strategies. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer; Boston, MA, USA: 2007. pp. 27–59. DOI

Muter B.A., Gore M.L., Gledhill K.S., Lamont C., Huveneers C. Australian and US news media portrayal of sharks and their conservation. Conserv. Biol. 2013;27:187–196. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01952.x. PubMed DOI

International Shark Attack File. [(accessed on 8 December 2020)]; Available online: https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/

Batt S. Human attitudes towards animals in relation to species similarity to humans: A multivariate approach. Biosci. Horiz. 2009;2:180–190. doi: 10.1093/biohorizons/hzp021. DOI

Cook M., Mineka S. Observational conditioning of fear to fear-relevant versus fear irrelevant stimuli in rhesus monkeys. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 1989;98:448. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.98.4.448. PubMed DOI

Caldicott D.G., Croser D., Manolis C., Webb G., Britton A. Crocodile attack in Australia: An analysis of its incidence and review of the pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2005;16:143–159. doi: 10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[143:CAIAAA]2.0.CO;2. PubMed DOI

CrocBITE 2013, The Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database. [(accessed on 8 December 2020)]; Available online: http://www.crocodile-attack.info/

Öhman A., Mineka S. The malicious serpent: Snakes as a prototypical stimulus for an evolved module of fear. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2003;12:5–9. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.01211. DOI

Isbell L.A. Snakes as Agents of Evolutionary Change in Primate Brains. J. Hum. Evol. 2006;51:1–35. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.012. PubMed DOI

World Health Organization Snakebite Envenoming 2019. [(accessed on 26 November 2020)]; Available online: http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/snakebite-envenoming.

Landová E., Peléšková Š., Sedláčková K., Janovcová M., Polák J., Rádlová S., Vobrubová B., Frynta D. Venomous snakes elicit stronger fear than nonvenomous ones: Psychophysiological response to snake images. PLoS ONE. 2020;15:e0236999. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236999. PubMed DOI PMC

Hart D., Sussman R.W. Man the Hunted: Primates, Predators, and Human Evolution. Westview Press; New York, NY, USA: 2009. DOI

Packer C., Hilborn R., Mosser A., Kissui B., Borner M., Hopcraft G., Wilmshurst J., Mduma S., Sinclair A.R. Ecological change, group territoriality, and population dynamics in Serengeti lions. Science. 2005;307:390–393. doi: 10.1126/science.1105122. PubMed DOI

Löe J., Röskaft E. Large carnivores and human safety: A review. AMBIO J. Hum. Environ. 2004;33:283–288. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-33.6.283. PubMed DOI

Lorenz K. The innate forms of potential experience. Z. Tierpsychol. 1943;5:235–409. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1943.tb00655.x. DOI

Corcoran W.C. Bachelor’s Thesis. The University of Vermont; Burlington, VT, USA: 2019. [(accessed on 30 November 2020)]. Big Cats Around the Globe: How Communities Around the World Perceive Their Backyard Big Cats. Available online: https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/envstheses/61.

Shepherd S.M., Mills A., Shoff W.H. Human attacks by large felid carnivores in captivity and in the wild. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2014;25:220–230. doi: 10.1016/j.wem.2014.01.005. PubMed DOI

Chippaux J.P., Goyffon M. Epidemiology of scorpionism: A global appraisal. Acta Trop. 2008;107:71–79. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.05.021. PubMed DOI

Vetter R.S., Draney M.L., Brown C.A., Trumble J.T., Gouge D.H., Hinkle N.C., Pace-Schott E.F. Spider Fear Versus Scorpion Fear in Undergraduate Students at Five American Universities. Am. Entomol. 2018;64:79–82. doi: 10.1093/ae/tmy030. DOI

White J. Bites and stings from venomous animals: A global overview. Ther. Drug Monit. 2000;22:65–68. doi: 10.1097/00007691-200002000-00014. PubMed DOI

Nentwig W., Kuhn-Nentwig L. Spider venoms potentially lethal to humans. In: Nentwig W., editor. Spider Ecophysiology. Springer; Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: 2013. pp. 253–264. DOI

Langley R.L. Animal-related fatalities in the United States—An update. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2005;16:67–74. doi: 10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[67:AFITUS]2.0.CO;2. PubMed DOI

Davey G.C. The “disgusting” spider: The role of disease and illness in the perpetuation of fear of spiders. Soc. Anim. 1994;2:17–25. doi: 10.1163/156853094X00045. DOI

Linnell J., Andersen R., Andersone Z., Balciauskas L., Blanco J.C., Boitani L., Wabakken P. The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans. NINA; Trondheim, Norway: 2002.

Treves A., Bonacic C. Humanity’s dual response to dogs and wolves. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2016;31:489–491. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2016.04.006. PubMed DOI

Torres D.F., Oliveira E.S., Alves R.R.N. Understanding human–wildlife conflicts and their implications. In: Alves R.R.N., Albuquerque U.P., editors. Ethnozoology. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2018. pp. 421–445. DOI

Treves A., Naughton-Treves L. Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores. J. Hum. Evol. 1999;36:275–282. doi: 10.1006/jhev.1998.0268. PubMed DOI

Haddad V., Jr., Sazima I. Piranha attacks on humans in southeast Brazil: Epidemiology, natural history, and clinical treatment, with description of a bite outbreak. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2003;14:249–254. doi: 10.1580/1080-6032(2003)14[249:PAOHIS]2.0.CO;2. PubMed DOI

Sazima I., de Andrade Guimaraes S. Scavenging on human corpses as a source for stories about man-eating piranhas. Environ. Biol. Fishes. 1987;20:75–77. doi: 10.1007/BF00002027. DOI

Český statistický úřad (Czech Statistical Office) [(accessed on 30 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.czso.cz/csu/czso/ceska-republika-podle-pohlavi-a-veku-2008-2017-b1c67xq334.

Schmidt J.O. Hymenoptera venoms: Striving toward theultimate defense against vertebrates. In: Evansm D.L., Schmidt J.O., editors. Insect defences. Adaptive Mechanisms and Strategiesof Prey and Predators. State University of New York Press; Albany, NY, USA: 1990. pp. 387–419.

Ekman P. An argument for basic emotions. Cogn. Emot. 1992;6:169–200. doi: 10.1080/02699939208411068. DOI

Kellert S.R. Values and perceptions of invertebrates. Conserv. Biol. 1993;7:845–855. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.740845.x. DOI

World Health Organization Disease Burden and Mortality Estimates. [(accessed on 26 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates/en/

Curtis V., Biran A. Dirt, disgust, and disease: Is hygiene in our genes? Perspect. Biol. Med. 2001;44:17–31. doi: 10.1353/pbm.2001.0001. PubMed DOI

Davey G.C.L. Characteristics of individuals with fear of spiders. Anxiety Res. 1991;4:299–314. doi: 10.1080/08917779208248798. DOI

World Health Organization Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections 2020. [(accessed on 26 November 2020)]; Available online: http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections.

Prokop P., Fančovičová J. The association between disgust, danger and fear of macroparasites and human behaviour. Acta Ethol. 2010;13:57–62. doi: 10.1007/s10211-010-0075-4. DOI

World Health Organization Vector-Borne Diseases 2020. [(accessed on 26 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases.

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control Annual Epidemiological Report for 2018, Tick-Borne Encephalitis. [(accessed on 26 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/TBE-annual-epidemiological-report-2018.pdf.

Delaunay P., Blanc V., Del Giudice P., Levy-Bencheton A., Chosidow O., Marty P., Brouqui P. Bedbugs and infectious diseases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011;52:200–210. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciq102. PubMed DOI PMC

Pritchard M.J., Hwang S.W. Severe anemia from bedbugs. Cmaj. 2009;181:287–288. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.090482. PubMed DOI PMC

Reinhardt K. Bedbug. Reaktion Books; London, UK: 2018. pp. 1–184.

Nehili M., Ilk C., Mehlhorn H., Ruhnau K., Dick W., Njayou M. Experiments on the possible role of leeches as vectors of animal and human pathogens: A light and electron microscopy study. Parasitol. Res. 1994;80:277–290. doi: 10.1007/BF02351867. PubMed DOI

Krüger C., Malleyeck I., Olsen O.H. Aquatic leech infestation: A rare cause of severe anaemia in an adolescent Tanzanian girl. Eur. J. Pediatrics. 2004;163:297–299. doi: 10.1007/s00431-004-1422-0. PubMed DOI

Bilgen C., Karci B., Uluöz Ü. A nasopharyngeal mass: Leech in the nasopharynx. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2002;64:73–76. doi: 10.1016/S0165-5876(02)00041-1. PubMed DOI

Rozin P., Haidt J., McCauley C. Disgust. In: Lewis M., Haviland J.M., editors. Handbook of Emotions. The Guilford Publications; New York, NY, USA: 2000. pp. 637–653.

Balit C.R., Harvey M.S., Waldock J.M., Isbister G.K. Prospective study of centipede bites in Australia. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 2004;42:41–48. doi: 10.1081/CLT-120028743. PubMed DOI

Supakthanasiri P., Ruxrungtham K., Klaewsongkram J., Chantaphakul H. Anaphylaxis to centipede bite. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2004;113:S244. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.01.341. DOI

Gerdes A.B., Uhl G., Alpers G.W. Spiders are special: Fear and disgust evoked by pictures of arthropods. Evol. Hum. Behav. 2009;30:66–73. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.08.005. DOI

Tolin D.F., Lohr J.M., Sawchuk C.N., Lee T.C. Disgust and disgust sensitivity in blood-injection-injury and spider phobia. Behav. Res. Ther. 1997;35:949–953. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00048-X. PubMed DOI

Thorpe S.J., Salkovskis P.M. Studies on the role of disgust in the acquisition and maintenance of specific phobias. Behav. Res. Ther. 1998;36:877–893. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00066-7. PubMed DOI

Smith M., Davidson J. It Makes My Skin Crawl...’: The Embodiment of Disgust in Phobias of ‘Nature. Body Soc. 2006;12:43–67. doi: 10.1177/1357034X06061195. DOI

Bennett-Levy J., Marteau T. Fear of animals: What is prepared? Br. J. Psychol. 1984;75:37–42. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1984.tb02787.x. DOI

Ceríaco L.M. Human attitudes towards herpetofauna: The influence of folklore and negative values on the conservation of amphibians and reptiles in Portugal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2012;8:8. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-8-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Daly J.W., Brown G.B., Mensah-Dwumah M., Myers C.W. Classification of skin alkaloids from neotropical poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae) Toxicon. 1978;16:163–188. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(78)90036-3. PubMed DOI

Rádlová S., Polák J., Janovcová M., Sedláčková K., Peléšková Š., Landová E., Frynta D. Emotional Reaction to Fear-and Disgust-Evoking Snakes: Sensitivity and Propensity in Snake-Fearful Respondents. Front. Psychol. 2020;11:31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00031. PubMed DOI PMC

Frynta D., Lišková S., Bültmann S., Burda H. Being attractive brings advantages: The case of parrot species in captivity. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e12568. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012568. PubMed DOI PMC

Frynta D., Marešová J., Řeháková-Petrů M., Šklíba J., Šumbera R., Krása A. Cross-cultural agreement in perception of animal beauty: Boid snakes viewed by people from five continents. Hum. Ecol. 2011;39:829–834. doi: 10.1007/s10745-011-9447-2. DOI

Herzog H.A. Gender differences in human–animal interactions: A review. Anthrozoös. 2007;20:7–21. doi: 10.2752/089279307780216687. DOI

Why Are Some Snakes More Terrifying and What Is Behind the Fear?

Hooding cobras can get ahead of other snakes in the ability to evoke human fear

Are vipers prototypic fear-evoking snakes? A cross-cultural comparison of Somalis and Czechs

Animals evoking fear in the Cradle of Humankind: snakes, scorpions, and large carnivores

Human emotional evaluation of ancestral and modern threats: fear, disgust, and anger

Do Spiders Ride on the Fear of Scorpions? A Cross-Cultural Eye Tracking Study

Emotions triggered by live arthropods shed light on spider phobia

Specificity of spiders among fear- and disgust-eliciting arthropods: Spiders are special, but phobics not so much