We understand very little about the timing and origins of bioluminescence, particularly as a predator avoidance strategy. Understanding the timing of its origins, however, can help elucidate the evolution of this ecologically important signal. Using fireflies, a prevalent bioluminescent group where bioluminescence primarily functions as aposematic and sexual signals, we explore the origins of this signal in the context of their potential predators. Divergence time estimations were performed using genomic-scale datasets providing a robust estimate for the origin of firefly bioluminescence as both a terrestrial and as an aerial signal. Our results recover the origin of terrestrial beetle bioluminescence at 141.17 (122.63-161.17) Ma and firefly aerial bioluminescence at 133.18 (117.86-152.47) Ma using a large dataset focused on Lampyridae; and terrestrial bioluminescence at 148.03 (130.12-166.80) Ma, with the age of aerial bioluminescence at 104.97 (99.00-120.90) Ma using a complementary Elateroidea dataset. These ages pre-date the origins of all known extant aerial predators (i.e. bats and birds) and support much older terrestrial predators (assassin bugs, frogs, ground beetles, lizards, snakes, hunting spiders and harvestmen) as the drivers of terrestrial bioluminescence in beetles. These ages also support the hypothesis that sexual signalling was probably the original function of this signal in aerial fireflies.

Biology Department Western Carolina University 206 Stillwell Building 1 University Dr Cullowhee NC 2723 USA

Department of Biology and Monte L Bean Museum Brigham Young University 4102 LSB Provo UT 84602 USA

Department of Biology Case Western Reserve University 2080 Adelbert Road Cleveland OH 44106 USA

Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida P O Box 110620 Gainesville FL 32611 USA

Laboratory of Biodiversity and Molecular Evolution Czech Advanced Technology Research Institute Palacky University Slechtitelu 27 Olomouc 783 71 Czech Republic

Plant Biology Department University of Georgia 4510 Miller Plant Sciences Building Athens GA 30602 USA

Research and Collections Division The Cleveland Museum of Natural History 1 Wade Oval Drive Cleveland OH 44106 USA

School of Math and Sciences Laramie County Community College 1400 E College Dr Cheyenne WY 82007 USA

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A light in the dark: a mid-Cretaceous bioluminescent firefly with specialized antennal sensory organs

Enigmatic Campyloxenus: Shedding light on the delayed origin of bioluminescence in ancient Gondwanan click beetles

Rhagophthalmidae Olivier, 1907 (Coleoptera, Elateroidea): described genera and species, current problems, and prospects for the bioluminescent and paedomorphic beetle lineage

Beetle bioluminescence outshines extant aerial predators