In European and many African, Middle Eastern and southern Asian populations, lactase persistence (LP) is the most strongly selected monogenic trait to have evolved over the past 10,000 years1. Although the selection of LP and the consumption of prehistoric milk must be linked, considerable uncertainty remains concerning their spatiotemporal configuration and specific interactions2,3. Here we provide detailed distributions of milk exploitation across Europe over the past 9,000 years using around 7,000 pottery fat residues from more than 550 archaeological sites. European milk use was widespread from the Neolithic period onwards but varied spatially and temporally in intensity. Notably, LP selection varying with levels of prehistoric milk exploitation is no better at explaining LP allele frequency trajectories than uniform selection since the Neolithic period. In the UK Biobank4,5 cohort of 500,000 contemporary Europeans, LP genotype was only weakly associated with milk consumption and did not show consistent associations with improved fitness or health indicators. This suggests that other reasons for the beneficial effects of LP should be considered for its rapid frequency increase. We propose that lactase non-persistent individuals consumed milk when it became available but, under conditions of famine and/or increased pathogen exposure, this was disadvantageous, driving LP selection in prehistoric Europe. Comparison of model likelihoods indicates that population fluctuations, settlement density and wild animal exploitation-proxies for these drivers-provide better explanations of LP selection than the extent of milk exploitation. These findings offer new perspectives on prehistoric milk exploitation and LP evolution.

'I 1 Mechnikov' Odessa National University Odessa Ukraine

Archaeological Consultancy Emsworth UK

Archaeological Department Landesmuseum Württemberg Stuttgart Germany

Archaeology South East UCL Institute of Archaeology University College London London UK

Archeologický ústav SAV Nitra Slovakia

Archéozoologie Archéobotanique Sociétés Pratiques et Environnement CNRS Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Sorbonne Universités Paris France

Área de Prehistoria Departamento de Historia Geografía y Comunicación University of Burgos Burgos Spain

Ca' Foscari University of Venice Venice Italy

Cambridge Archaeological Unit University of Cambridge Cambridge UK

Canterbury Archaeological Trust Canterbury UK

Centro Mixto UCM ISCIII de Evolución y Comportamiento Humana Madrid Spain

CFA Archaeology Musselburgh UK

Cornwall Archaeological Unit Cornwall Council Truro UK

Cotswold Archaeology Cirencester UK

Department of Anthropology and Archaeology University of Bristol Bristol UK

Department of Archaeology Adam Mickiewicz University Poznań Poland

Department of Archaeology University of Exeter Exeter UK

Department of Archaeology University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria

Department of Archaeology University of Southampton Southampton UK

Department of Bioarchaeology 'Vasile Pârvan' Institute of Archaeology Romanian Academy Bucharest Romania

Department of Cultures Section of Archaeology University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Department of Dairy Fat and Cosmetics University of Chemistry and Technology Prague Prague Czech Republic

Department of Genetics Evolution and Environment University College London London UK

Department of Geography King's College London London UK

Department of History Palacký University Olomouc Czech Republic

Department of Humanistic Studies University of Ferrara Ferrara Italy

Department of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology University of Vienna Vienna Austria

Dobó István Castle Museum Eger Hungary

Eunomia Research and Consulting Bristol UK

Faculty of Archaeology Adam Mickiewicz University Poznań Poland

Faculty of Archaeology Leiden University Leiden the Netherlands

Generaldirektion Kulturelles Erbe Rheinland Pfalz Dir Landesarchäologie Speyer Germany

Geology Department University of Trás os Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real Portugal

Geosciences Centre Coimbra University Coimbra Portugal

German Archaeological Institute Berlin Germany

Great North Museum Newcastle UK

GUARD Glasgow Glasgow UK

Herman Ottó Museum Miskolc Hungary

ICArEHB Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais Universidade do Algarve Faro Portugal

Institute of Archaeological Sciences Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences Poznań Poland

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology University of Gdańsk Gdańsk Poland

Institute of Archaeology and Museology Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Institute of Archaeology of Academy of Science of Ukraine Kiev Ukraine

Institute of Archaeology Research Centre for the Humanities Eötvös Loránd Research Network Centre of Excellence of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budapest Hungary

Institute of Archaeology University Rzeszów Rzeszów Poland

Institute of History and Archaeology UB RAS Ekaterinburg Russia

Institute of History University of Regensburg Regensburg Germany

Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology Free University of Berlin Berlin Germany

Institute of Prehistory Adam Mickiewicz University Poznań Poland

Istanbul University Istanbul Turkey

Kelten Römer Museum Manching Manching Germany

Kostanay State University Kostanay Kazakhstan

Laboratorio Evolución Humana University of Burgos Burgos Spain

Landesamt für Archaeologie Dresden Germany

Leicestershire County Council Museums Leicestershire UK

LVR State Service for Archaeological Heritage Bonn Germany

Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena Germany

MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit University of Bristol Bristol UK

MSHE C N Ledoux CNRS and University of Franche Comté Besançon France

National Museum of Antiquities Leiden the Netherlands

National Museums Scotland Edinburgh UK

Network Archaeology Lincoln UK

NIHR Bristol Biomedical Research Centre University of Bristol Bristol UK

North Yorkshire County Council HER Northallerton UK

Nuclear Dosimetry Department Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Organic Geochemistry Unit School of Chemistry University of Bristol Bristol UK

Oxford Archaeology East Oxford UK

Oxford Archaeology North Lancaster UK

Palaeogenetics Group Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz Mainz Germany

Patrimonio and Arte Research Group Extremadura University Badajoz and Cáceres Badajoz Spain

Polytechnic Institute of Tomar Tomar Portugal

Population Health Sciences Bristol Medical School University of Bristol Bristol UK

Prehistory Department Institut of Archaeology Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt Germany

Römisch Germanische Kommission Frankfurt Germany

Römisch Germanisches Zentralmuseum Leibniz Research Institute for Archaeology Mainz Germany

Royal Cornwall Museum Truro UK

School of Archaeology University College Dublin Dublin Ireland

School of Engineering and Applied Science Princeton University Princeton NJ USA

School of Life Sciences University of Westminster London UK

Staatliches Museum für Archäologie Chemnitz Germany

State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony Anhalt State Museum of Prehistory Halle Saale Germany

Tees Archaeology Hartlepool UK

Terra e Memória Institute Mação Portugal

The Landscape Research Centre Ltd West Heslerton UK

The McManus Dundee's Art Gallery and Museum Dundee UK

UCL Genetics Institute University College London London UK

UCL Institute of Archaeology University College London London UK

UMR 6298 ARTEHIS University of Burgundy Dijon France

UMR 7044 ARCHIMEDE University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France

UMR 7044 INRAP Grand Est Sud University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France

UMR 8215 Trajectoires Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne Paris France

University of Belgrade Belgrad Serbia

Komentář v

Nature. 2022 Aug;608(7922):251-252. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-02067-2. PubMed

Komentář v

Nature. 2022 Aug;608(7922):268-269. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-02041-y. PubMed

Erratum v

Nature. 2022 Sep;609(7927):E9. doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05227-6. PubMed

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Sabeti PC, et al. Positive natural selection in the human lineage. Science. 2006;312:1614. PubMed

Evershed RP, et al. Earliest date for milk use in the Near East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding. Nature. 2008;455:528–531. PubMed

Debono Spiteri C, et al. Regional asynchronicity in dairy production and processing in early farming communities of the northern Mediterranean. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113:13594–13599. PubMed PMC

Collins R. What makes UK Biobank special? Lancet. 2012;379:1173–1174. PubMed

Allen NE, Sudlow C, Peakman T, Collins R. UK Biobank Data: Come and Get It. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:224ed224 PubMed

Gerbault P, et al. Evolution of lactase persistence: an example of human niche construction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci. 2011;366:863–877. PubMed PMC

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) FAOSTAT. Available at http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QA. PubMed

Vigne J-D, Helmer D. Was milk a —secondary product” in the Old World Neolithisation process? Its role in the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats. Anthropozoologica. 2007;42:9–40.

Roffet-Salque M, Gillis R, Evershed RP, Vigne J-D. In: Hybrid communities: biosocial approaches to domestication and other trans-species relationships. Stépanoff Charles, Vigne Jean-Denis., editors. Routledge; 2018. pp. 127–143.

Gillis R, et al. Sophisticated cattle dairy husbandry at Bordusani-Popină (Romania, fifth millennium BC): the evidence from complementary analysis of mortality profiles and stable isotopes. World Archaeol. 2013;45:447–472.

Ethier J, et al. Earliest expansion of animal husbandry beyond the Mediterranean zone in the sixth millennium BC. Sci Rep. 2017;7:7146. PubMed PMC

Salque M, et al. Earliest evidence for cheese making in the sixth millennium BC in northern Europe. Nature. 2013;493:522–525. PubMed

Gillis RE, et al. The evolution of dual meat and milk cattle husbandry in Linearbandkeramik societies. Proc Royal Soc B. 2017;284 PubMed PMC

Balasse M, Tresset A. Early weaning of Neolithic domestic cattle (Bercy, France) revealed by intra-tooth variation in nitrogen isotope ratios. J Archaeol Sci. 2002;29:853–859.

Casanova E, et al. Dating the emergence of dairying by the first farmers of Central Europe using 14C analysis of fatty acids preserved in pottery vessels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. in press. PubMed PMC

Whelton HL, Roffet-Salque M, Kotsakis K, Urem-Kotsou D, Evershed RP. Strong bias towards carcass product processing at Neolithic settlements in northern Greece revealed through absorbed lipid residues of archaeological pottery. Quat Int. 2018;496:127–139.

Copley MS, et al. Direct chemical evidence for widespread dairying in prehistoric Britain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:1524–1529. PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, et al. Immediate replacement of fishing with dairying by the earliest farmers of the northeast Atlantic archipelagos. Proc Royal Soc B. 2014;281:20132372 PubMed PMC

Smyth J, Evershed RP. Milking the megafauna: Using organic residue analysis to understand early farming practice. Environ Archaeol. 2016;21:214–229.

Charlton S, et al. New insights into Neolithic milk consumption through proteomic analysis of dental calculus. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2019;11:6183–6196.

Craig OE, et al. Ancient lipids reveal continuity in culinary practices across the transition to agriculture in Northern Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:17910–17915. PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, et al. Neolithic dairy farming at the extreme of agriculture in Northern Europe. Proc Royal Soc B. 2014;281:20140819 PubMed PMC

Pääkkonen M, Holmqvist E, Bläuer A, Evershed RP, Asplund H. Diverse economic patterns in the North Baltic Sea region in the Late Neolithic and Early Metal periods. Eur J Archaeol. 2019;23:4–21.

Burger J, Kirchner M, Bramanti B, Haak W, Thomas MG. Absence of the lactase-persistence-associated allele in early Neolithic Europeans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:3736–3741. PubMed PMC

Sverrisdóttir OÓ, et al. Direct estimates of natural selection in Iberia indicate calcium absorption was not the only driver of lactase persistence in Europe. Mol Biol Evol. 2014;31:975–983. PubMed

Allentoft ME, et al. Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia. Nature. 2015;522:167–172. PubMed

Haak W, et al. Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Nature. 2015;522:207–211. PubMed PMC

Brace S, et al. Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain. Nat Ecol Evol. 2019;3:765–771. PubMed PMC

Burger J, et al. Low Prevalence of Lactase Persistence in Bronze Age Europe Indicates Ongoing Strong Selection over the Last 3,000 Years. Curr Biol. 2020;30:4307–4315.:e4313. PubMed

Itan Y, Powell A, Beaumont MA, Burger J, Thomas MG. The origins of lactase persistence in Europe. PLoS Comput Biol. 2009;5:e1000491. PubMed PMC

Enattah NS, et al. Identification of a variant associated with adult-type hypolactasia. Nat Genet. 2002;30:233–237. PubMed

Itan Y, Jones B, Ingram C, Swallow D, Thomas M. A worldwide correlation of lactase persistence phenotype and genotypes. BMC Evol Biol. 2010;10:36. PubMed PMC

Flatz G, Rotthauwe H. Lactose nutrition and natural selection. Lancet. 1973;302:76–77. PubMed

Cubas M, et al. Latitudinal gradient in dairy production with the introduction of farming in Atlantic Europe. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1–9. PubMed PMC

Klopfstein S, Currat M, Excoffier L. The fate of mutations surfing on the wave of a range expansion. Mol Biol Evol. 2006;23:482–490. PubMed

Gerbault P, Moret C, Currat M, Sanchez-Mazas A. Impact of selection and demography on the diffusion of lactase persistence. PloS One. 2009;4:e6369. PubMed PMC

Cook GC, al-Torki MT. High intestinal lactase concentrations in adult Arabs in Saudi Arabia. Br Med J. 1975;3:135–136. PubMed PMC

Davey Smith G, et al. Lactase persistence-related genetic variant: population substructure and health outcomes. Eur J Hum Genet. 2009;17:357–367. PubMed PMC

Cederlund A, et al. Lactose in human breast milk an inducer of innate immunity with implications for a role in intestinal homeostasis. PloS One. 2013;8 PubMed PMC

Gibson PR. History of the low FODMAP diet. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;32:5–7. PubMed

Walker C, Thomas MG. In: Lactose - Evolutionary role, healh effects, and applications. Paques Marcel, Lindner Cordula., editors. Elsevier; 2019. pp. 1–48. 1.

Simoons F. Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: a problem in biologic and cultural interrelations - II. A culture historical hypothesis. Dig Dis Sci. 1970;15:695–710. PubMed

McCracken RD. Lactase deficiency: an example of dietary evolution. Curr Anthropol. 1971;12:479–517.

Holden C, Mace R. Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults. Hum Biol. 1997;69:605–628. PubMed

Ingram CJE, et al. A novel polymorphism associated with lactose tolerance in Africa: multiple causes for lactase persistence? Hum Genet. 2007;120:779–788. PubMed

Tishkoff SA, et al. Convergent adaptation of human lactase persistence in Africa and Europe. Nat Genet. 2007;39:31–40. PubMed PMC

Joslin SEK, et al. Association of the Lactase Persistence Haplotype Block With Disease Risk in Populations of European Descent. Front Genet. 2020;11:1346. PubMed PMC

Dudd SN, Evershed RP. Direct demonstration of milk as an element of archaeological economies. Science. 1998;282:1478–1481. PubMed

Dunne J, et al. First dairying in green Saharan Africa in the fifth millennium BC. Nature. 2012;486:390–394. PubMed

Manning K, et al. The origins and spread of stock-keeping: the role of cultural and environmental influences on early Neolithic animal exploitation in Europe. Antiquity. 2013;87:1046–1059.

Shennan S, et al. Regional population collapse followed initial agriculture booms in mid-Holocene Europe. Nat Commun. 2013;4:2486. PubMed PMC

Howe LJ, et al. Genetic evidence for assortative mating on alcohol consumption in the UK Biobank. Nat Commun. 2019;10:5039. PubMed PMC

Rodriguez S, Gaunt TR, Day INM. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium testing of biological ascertainment for Mendelian randomization studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169:505–514. PubMed PMC

Mendelian Randomization of Dairy Consumption Working Group. Dairy Consumption and Body Mass Index Among Adults: Mendelian Randomization Analysis of 184802 Individuals from 25 Studies. Clin Chem. 2018;64:183–191. PubMed PMC

Simmons JS, Whayne TF, Anderson GW, Horack HM. Global epidemiology A geography of disease and sanitation. Vol. 1 William Heineman; 1944.

Bai Z, et al. Global environmental costs of China’s thirst for milk. Glob Change Biol. 2018;24:2198–2211. PubMed

Simoons F. Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: a problem in biological and cultural interrelations - I. Review of the medical research. Dig Dis Sci. 1969;14:819–836. PubMed

Bayless TM, Paige DM, Ferry GD. Lactose intolerance and milk drinking habits. Gastroenterology. 1971;60:605–608. PubMed

Szilagyi A, Walker C, Thomas MG. In: Lactose: Evolutionary role, health effects, and applications. Paques Marcel, Lindner Cordula., editors. Elsevier; 2019. pp. 113–153.

Almon R, Álvarez-Leon EE, Serra-Majem L. Association of the European lactase persistence variant (LCT-13910 C>T polymorphism) with obesity in the Canary Islands. PLoS One. 2012;7:e43978. PubMed PMC

Hartwig FP, Horta BL, Smith GD, de Mola CL, Victora CG. Association of lactase persistence genotype with milk consumption, obesity and blood pressure: a Mendelian randomization study in the 1982 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort, with a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2016;45:1573–1587. PubMed PMC

Qin L-Q, He K, Xu J-Y. Milk consumption and circulating insulin-like growth factor-I level: a systematic literature review. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009;60:330–340. PubMed

Wiley A. The evolution of lactase persistence: milk consumption, insulin-like growth factor I, and human life-history parameters. Q Rev Biol. 2018;93:319–345.

Campbell CD, et al. Demonstrating stratification in a European American population. Nat Genet. 2005;37:868–872. PubMed

Bergholdt HKM, Nordestgaard BG, Varbo A, Ellervik C. Milk intake is not associated with ischaemic heart disease in observational or Mendelian randomization analyses in 98 529 Danish adults. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44:587–603. PubMed

Bocquet-Appel J-P. When the world’s population took off: the springboard of the Neolithic demographic transition. Science. 2011;333:560–561. PubMed

Loog L, et al. Estimating mobility using sparse data: Application to human genetic variation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2017;114:12213–12218. PubMed PMC

Vorou R, Papavassiliou V, Tsiodras S. Emerging zoonoses and vector-borne infections affecting humans in Europe. Epidemiol Infect. 2007;135:1231–1247. PubMed PMC

Allen T, et al. Global hotspots and correlates of emerging zoonotic diseases. Nat Commun. 2017;8:1124. PubMed PMC

Rice AL, Sacco L, Hyder A, Black RE. Malnutrition as an underlying cause of childhood deaths associated with infectious diseases in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78:1207–1221. PubMed PMC

Colledge S, Conolly J, Crema E, Shennan S. Neolithic population crash in northwest Europe associated with agricultural crisis. Quat Res. 2019:1–22.

Manning K. The Cultural Evolution of Neolithic Europe. EUROEVOL Dataset 2: Zooarchaeological data. JOAD. 2016;5

Chessa B, et al. Revealing the history of sheep domestication using retrovirus integrations. Science. 2009;324:532. PubMed PMC

Karesh WB, Cook RA, Bennett EL, Newcomb J. Wildlife trade and global disease emergence. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1000. PubMed PMC

Chomel BB, Belotto A, Meslin F-X. Wildlife, exotic pets, and emerging zoonoses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:6. PubMed PMC

Schibler J, Jacomet S, Hüster-Plogmann H, Brombacher C. Economic crash in the 37th and 36th centuries cal. BC in Neolithic lake shore sites in Switzerland. Anthropozoologica. 1997;25:553–570.

He Y, Yang X, Xia J, Zhao L, Yang Y. Consumption of meat and dairy products in China: a review. Proc Nutr Soc. 2016;75:385–391. PubMed

Mak VSW. Milk craze Body, science, and hope in China. University of Hawai’i Press; 2021.

Goodrich JuliaK, et al. Genetic Determinants of the Gut Microbiome in UK Twins. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19:731–743. PubMed PMC

Paine RR, Boldsen JL. In: The evolution of human life history School for Advanced Research Advanced Seminar Series. Hawkes K, Paine RR, editors. School of American Research Press; 2006. pp. 307–330.

Stackhouse PW, Jr, et al. POWER release 8 (with GIS applications) methodology (data parameters, sources, & validation) documentation date may 1, 2018 (all previous versions are obsolete)(data version 8.0. 1) NASA; 2018. Retrieved from https://power.larc.nasa.gov.

Lieberman M, Lieberman D. Lactase Deficiency: A Genetic Mechanism which Regulates the Time of Weaning. Am Nat. 1978;112:625–627.

Ingold T. Hunters, pastoralists and ranchers: reindeer economies and their transformations. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge: 1980.

Outram AK, et al. The earliest horse harnessing and milking. Science. 2009;323:1332–1335. PubMed

Breu A, Gómez-Bach A, Heron C, Rosell-Melé A, Molist M. Variation in pottery use across the Early Neolithic in the Barcelona plain. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2021;13:53.

Brychova V, et al. Animal exploitation and pottery use during the early LBK phases of the Neolithic site of Bylany (Czech Republic) tracked through lipid residue analysis. Quat Int. 2021;574:91–101.

Carrer F, et al. Chemical analysis of pottery demonstrates Prehistoric origin for high-altitude alpine dairying. PloS One. 2016;11:e0151442. PubMed PMC

Casanova E, et al. Spatial and temporal disparities in human subsistence in the Neolithic Rhineland gateway. J Archaeol Sci. 2020;122:105215

Colonese AC, et al. The identification of poultry processing in archaeological ceramic vessels using in-situ isotope references for organic residue analysis. J Archaeol Sci. 2017;78:179–192.

Copley MS, et al. Direct chemical evidence for widespread dairying in prehistoric Britain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:1524–1529. PubMed PMC

Copley MS, et al. Dairying in antiquity. I. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Iron Age. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32:485–503.

Copley MS, Berstan R, Straker V, Payne S, Evershed RP. Dairying in antiquity. II. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Bronze Age. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32:505–521.

Copley MS, et al. Dairying in antiquity. III. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Neolithic. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32:523–546.

Copley MS, Evershed RP. In: Building memories: the Neolithic Cotswold long barrow at Ascott-under-Wychwood, Oxfordshire Cardiff Studies in Archaeology. Benson Don, Whittle A., editors. Oxbow Books; 2006.

Courel B, et al. Organic residue analysis shows sub-regional patterns in the use of pottery by Northern European hunter-gatherers. R Soc Open Sci. 2020;7:192016. PubMed PMC

Craig OE, et al. Did the first farmers of central and eastern Europe produce dairy foods? Antiquity. 2005;79:882–894.

Craig OE, Taylor G, Mulville J, Collins MJ, Parker Pearson M. The identification of prehistoric dairying activities in the Western Isles of Scotland: an integrated biomolecular approach. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32:91–103.

Craig OE, et al. Molecular and isotopic demonstration of the processing of aquatic products in Northern European Prehistoric pottery. Archaeometry. 2007;49:135–152.

Craig O. In: Archaeology meets science - Biomolecular investigations in Bronze Age Greece. Tzedakis Yannis, Martlew Holley, Jones Martin K., editors. Oxbow Books; 2008. pp. 121–124.

Craig OE, et al. Ancient lipids reveal continuity in culinary practices across the transition to agriculture in Northern Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:17910–17915. PubMed PMC

Craig OE, et al. Feeding Stonehenge: cuisine and consumption at the Late Neolithic site of Durrington Walls. Antiquity. 2015;89:1096–1109.

Craig-Atkins E, et al. The dietary impact of the Norman Conquest: A multiproxy archaeological investigation of Oxford, UK. PloS One. 2020;15:e0235005. PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, Evershed RP, Eckardt H. What was a mortarium used for? Organic residues and cultural change in Iron Age and Roman Britain. Antiquity. 2011;85:1339–1352.

Cramp LJE, et al. Neolithic dairy farming at the extreme of agriculture in Northern Europe. Proc Royal Soc B. 2014;281:20140819 PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, et al. Immediate replacement of fishing with dairying by the earliest farmers of the northeast Atlantic archipelagos. Proc Royal Soc B. 2014;281:20132372 PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, et al. Regional diversity in subsistence among early farmers in Southeast Europe revealed by archaeological organic residues. Proc Royal Soc B. 2019;286:20182347 PubMed PMC

Cramp LJE, Król D, Rutter M, Heyd VM, Pospieszny L. Analiza pozostalosci organicznych z ceramiki kultury rzucewskiej z Rzucewa. Pomorania Antiqua. 2019;XXVIII:245–259.

Cubas M, et al. Latitudinal gradient in dairy production with the introduction of farming in Atlantic Europe. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1–9. PubMed PMC

Debono Spiteri C, et al. Regional asynchronicity in dairy production and processing in early farming communities of the northern Mediterranean. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113:13594–13599. PubMed PMC

Demirci Ö, Lucquin A, Craig OE, Raemaekers DCM. First lipid residue analysis of Early Neolithic pottery from Swifterbant (the Netherlands, ca. 4300-4000 BC) Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2020;12:105.

Demirci Ö, Lucquin A, Cakirlar C, Craig OE, Raemaekers DCM. Lipid residue analysis on Swifterbant pottery (c. 5000-3800 cal BC) in the Lower Rhine-Meuse area (the Netherlands) and its implications for human-animal interactions in relation to the Neolithisation process. J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2021;36:102812

Dreslerová D, et al. Seeking the meaning of a unique mountain site through a multidisciplinary approach. The Late La Téne site at Sklářské Valley, Šumava Mountains, Czech Republic. Quat Int. 2020;542:88–108.

Drieu L, et al. Chemical evidence for the persistence of wine production and trade in Early Medieval Islamic Sicily. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021;118:e2017983118. PubMed PMC

Drieu L, et al. A Neolithic without dairy? Chemical evidence from the content of ceramics from the Pendimoun rock-shelter (Castellar, France, 5750-5150 BCE) J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2021;35:102682

Dunne J, et al. Milk of ruminants in ceramic baby bottles from prehistoric child graves. Nature. 2019;574:246–248. PubMed

Dunne J, Chapman A, Blinkhorn P, Evershed RP. Reconciling organic residue analysis, faunal, archaeobotanical and historical records: Diet and the medieval peasant at West Cotton, Raunds, Northamptonshire. J Archaeol Sci. 2019;107:58–70.

Dunne J, Chapman A, Blinkhorn P, Evershed RP. Fit for purpose? Organic residue analysis and vessel specialisation: The perfectly utilitarian medieval pottery assemblage from West Cotton, Raunds. J Archaeol Sci. 2020;120:105178

Dunne J, et al. Finding Oxford’s medieval Jewry using organic residue analysis, faunal records and historical documents. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2021;13:48.

Ethier J, et al. Earliest expansion of animal husbandry beyond the Mediterranean zone in the sixth millennium BC. Sci Rep. 2017;7:7146. PubMed PMC

Evershed RP, Copley MS, Dickson L, Hansel FA. Experimental evidence for the processing of marine animal products and other commodities containing polyunsaturated fatty acids in pottery vessels. Archaeometry. 2008;50:101–113.

Fanti L, et al. The role of pottery in Middle Neolithic societies of western Mediterranean (Sardinia, Italy, 4500-4000 cal BC) revealed through an integrated morphometric, use-wear, biomolecular and isotopic approach. J Archaeol Sci. 2018;93:110–128.

Francés-Negro M, et al. Neolithic to Bronze Age economy and animal management revealed using analyses of lipid residues of pottery vessels and faunal remains at El Portalón de Cueva Mayor (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) J Archaeol Sci. 2021;131:105380

Gregg MW, Banning EB, Gibbs K, Slater GF. Subsistence practices and pottery use in Neolithic Jordan: molecular and isotopic evidence. J Archaeol Sci. 2009;36:937–946.

Gunnarssone A, Oras E, Talbot HM, Ilves K, Legzdina D. Cooking for the living and the dead: lipid analysess of Rauši settlement and cemetery pottery from the 11th-13th century. Estonian J Archaeol. 2020;24

Heron C, et al. Cooking fish and drinking milk? Patterns in pottery use in the southeastern Baltic, 3300-2400 cal BC. J Archaeol Sci. 2015;63:33–43.

Hoekman-Sites HA, Giblin JI. Prehistoric animal use on the Great Hungarian Plain: A synthesis of isotope and residue analyses from the Neolithic and Copper Age. J Anthropol Archaeol. 2012;31:515–527.

Isaksson S, Hallgren F. Lipid residue analyses of Early Neolithic funnel-beaker pottery from Skogsmossen, eastern Central Sweden, and the earliest evidence of dairying in Sweden. J Archaeol Sci. 2012;39:3600–3609.

Krueger M, Bajčev O, Whelton HL, Evershed RP. The Neolithic in the Middle Morava Valley. 2019;3:61–76.

Manzano E, et al. An integrated multianalytical approach to the reconstruction of daily activities at the Bronze Age settlement in Peñalosa (Jaén, Spain) Microchem J. 2015;122:127–136.

Manzano E, et al. Molecular and isotopic analyses on prehistoric pottery from the Virués-Martínez cave (Granada, Spain) J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2019;27:101929

Matlova V, et al. Defining pottery use and animal management at the Neolithic site of Bylany (Czech Republic) J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2017;14:262–274.

McClure SB, et al. Fatty acid specific δ13C values reveal earliest Mediterranean cheese production 7,200 years ago. PloS One. 2018;13:e0202807. PubMed PMC

Mileto S, Kaiser E, Rassamakin Y, Whelton H, Evershed RP. Differing modes of animal exploitation in North-Pontic Eneolithic and Bronze Age Societies. Sci Technol Archaeol Res. 2017;3:112–125.

Mukherjee AJ, Berstan R, Copley MS, Gibson AM, Evershed RP. Compound-specific stable carbon isotopic detection of pig product processing in British Late Neolithic pottery. Antiquity. 2007;83:743–754.

Mukherjee AJ, Gibson AM, Evershed RP. Trends in pig product processing at British Neolithic Grooved Ware sites traced through organic residues in potsherds. J Archaeol Sci. 2008;35:2059–2073.

Ogrinc N, Budja M, Potocnik D, Žibrat Gašparič A, Mlekuž D. Lipids, pots and food processing at Hocevarica, Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia. Doc Praehist. 2014;XLI:181–194.

Oras E, et al. The adoption of pottery by north-east European hunter-gatherers: Evidence from lipid residue analysis. J Archaeol Sci. 2017;78:112–119.

Oras E, et al. Social food here and hereafter: Multiproxy analysis of gender-specific food consumption in conversion period inhumation cemetery at Kukruse, NE-Estonia. J Archaeol Sci. 2018;97:90–101.

Outram AK, et al. The earliest horse harnessing and milking. Science. 2009;323:1332–1335. PubMed

Outram AK, et al. Horses for the dead: funerary foodways in Bronze Age Kazakhstan. Antiquity. 2010;85:116–128.

Outram AK, et al. Patterns of pastoralism in later Bronze Age Kazakhstan: new evidence from faunal and lipid residue analyses. J Archaeol Sci. 2012;39:2424–2435.

Özbal H, et al. Neolitik Bati Anadolu ve Marmara yerleşimleri çanak çömleklerinde organik kalinti analizleri. Arkeometri Sonuçglari Toplantisi. 2013;28:105–114.

Özbal H, et al. Yenikapi, Aşağipinar, Bademağaci ve Barcin Çömleklerindeorganik kalinti analizi. Arkeometri Sonuçglari Toplantisi. 2013;29:83–90.

Pääkkönen M, Bläuer A, Evershed RP, Asplund H. Reconstructing food procurement and processing in early Comb ware period through organic residues in early Comb and Jakarla ware pottery. Fennosc Archaeol. 2016;XXXIII:57–75.

Pääkkönen M, Bläuer A, Olsen B, Evershed RP, Asplund H. Contrasting patterns of prehistoric human diet and subsistence in northernmost Europe. Sci Rep. 2018;8:1148. PubMed PMC

Pääkkönen M, Holmqvist E, Bläuer A, Evershed RP, Asplund H. Diverse economic patterns in the North Baltic Sea region in the Late Neolithic and Early Metal periods. Eur J Archaeol. 2019;23:4–21.

Papakosta V, Oras E, Isaksson S. Early pottery use across the Baltic - A comparative lipid residue study on Ertebølle and Narva ceramics from coastal hunter-gatherer sites in southern Scandinavia, northern Germany and Estonia. J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2019;24:142–151.

Pennetta A, Fico D, Lucrezia Savino M, Larocca F, Egidio De Benedetto G. Characterization of Bronze age pottery from the Grotte di Pertosa-Auletta (Italy): Results from the first analysis of organic lipid residues. J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2020;31:102308

Piličiauskas G, et al. The Corded Ware culture in the Eastern Baltic: New evidence on chronology, diet, beaker, bone and flint tool function. J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2018;21:538–552.

Piličiauskas G, et al. Fishers of the Corded Ware culture in the Eastern Baltic. Acta Archaeol. 2020;91:95–120.

Robinson G, et al. Furness’s first farmers: evidence of Early Neolithic settlement and dairying in Cumbria. Proc Prehist. 2020:1–34.

Robson HK, et al. Diet, cuisine and consumption practices of the first farmers in the southeastern Baltic. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2019 PubMed PMC

Roffet-Salque M, Evershed RP. In: Kopydlowo, stanowisko 6 Osady neolityczne z pogranicza Kujaw i Wielkopolski. Marciniak Arkadiusz, Sobkowiak-Tabaka Iwona, Bartkowiak Marta, Lisowski Mikolaj., editors. Wydawnictwo Profil-Archeo; 2015. pp. 133–142.

Roffet-Salque M, Banecki B, Evershed RP. In: Megalityczny grobowiec kultury amfor kulistych z Kierzkowa Milczący świadek kultu przodków z epoki kamienia / A Megalithic tomb of the Globular Amphora Culture from Kierzkowo in the Paluki region - a silent witness of ancestor worship from the Stone Age Biskupin Archaeological Works. Nowaczyk S, Pospieszny L, Sobkowiak-Tabaka I, editors. Archaeological Museum in Biskupin; 2017. pp. 251–266.

Roffet-Salque M, et al. In: Ludwinowo 7 - Neolithic settlement in Kuyavia Saved Archaeological Heritage 8. Pyzel Joanna., editor. Profil-Archeo Publishing House and Archaeological Studio, University of Gdansk Publishing House; 2019. pp. 301–316. 9.

Salque M, et al. New insights into the early Neolithic economy and management of animals in Southern and Central Europe revealed using lipid residue analyses of pottery vessels. Anthropozoologica. 2012;47:45–61.

Salque M, et al. Earliest evidence for cheese making in the sixth millennium BC in northern Europe. Nature. 2013;493:522–525. PubMed

Smyth J, Evershed RP. The molecules of meals: new insight into Neolithic foodways. Proc R Ir Acad. 2015;115C:1–20.

Smyth J, Evershed RP. Milking the megafauna: Using organic residue analysis to understand early farming practice. Environ Archaeol. 2016;21:214–229.

Šoberl L. Pots for the afterlife: organic residue analysis of British Early Bronze Age pottery from funerary contexts. PhD thesis, University of Bristol; 2011.

Šoberl L, Žibrat Gašparič A, Budja M, Evershed RP. Early herding practices revealed through organic residue analysis of pottery from the early Neolithic rock shelter of Mala Triglavca, Slovenia. Doc Praehist. 2008:253–260.

Šoberl L, et al. Neolithic and Eneolithic activities inferred from organic residue analysis of pottery from Mala Triglavca, Moverna vas and Ajdovska jama, Slovenia. Doc Praehist. 2014;XLI:149–179.

Spangenberg JE, Jacomet S, Schibler J. Chemical analyses of organic residues in archaeological pottery from Arbon Bleiche 3, Switzerland - evidence for dairying in the late Neolithic. J Archaeol Sci. 2006;33:1–13.

Spangenberg JE, Matuschik I, Jacomet S, Schibler J. Direct evidence for the existence of dairying farms in prehistoric Central Europe (4th mil. BC) Isotopes Environ Health Stud. 2008;44:189–200. PubMed

Spataro M, et al. Production and function of Neolithic black-painted pottery from Schela Cladovei (Iron Gates, Romania) Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2019

Steele VJ, Stern B. Red Lustrous Wheelmade ware: Analysis of organic residues in Late Bronze Age trade and storage vessels from the eastern Mediterranean. J Archaeol Sci Rep. 2017;16:641–657.

Stojanovski D, et al. Living off the land: Terrestrial-based diet and dairying in the farming communities of the Neolithic Balkans. PloS One. 2020;15:e0237608. PubMed PMC

Stojanovski D, et al. Anta 1 de Val da Laje - the first direct view at diet, dairying practice and socio-economic aspects of pottery use in the final Neolithic of central Portugal. Quat Int. 2020;542:1–8.

Tarifa-Mateo N, et al. New insights from Neolithic pottery analyses reveal subsistence practices and pottery use in early farmers from Cueva de El Toro (Malagá, Spain) Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2019

Weber J, Brozio JP, Mჼller J, Schwark L. Grave gifts manifest the ritual status of cattle in Neolithic societies of northern Germany. J Archaeol Sci. 2020;117:105122

Whelton HL, Roffet-Salque M, Kotsakis K, Urem-Kotsou D, Evershed RP. Strong bias towards carcass product processing at Neolithic settlements in northern Greece revealed through absorbed lipid residues of archaeological pottery. Quat Int. 2018;496:127–139.

Evershed RP, Heron C, Goad LJ. Analysis of organic residues of archaeological origin by high-temperature gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Analyst. 1990;115:1339–1342.

Correa-Ascencio M, Evershed RP. High throughput screening of organic residues in archaeological potsherds using direct methanolic acid extraction. Anal Methods. 2014;6:1330–1340.

Dudd SN, Evershed RP. Direct demonstration of milk as an element of archaeological economies. Science. 1998;282:1478–1481. PubMed

Evershed RP, et al. Earliest date for milk use in the Near East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding. Nature. 2008;455:528–531. PubMed

Dunne J, et al. First dairying in green Saharan Africa in the fifth millennium BC. Nature. 2012;486:390–394. PubMed

Reimer PJ, et al. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0-50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon. 2013;55:1869–1887.

Bronk Ramsey C. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon. 2009;51:337–360.

Collins R. What makes UK Biobank special? Lancet. 2012;379:1173–1174. PubMed

Allen NE, Sudlow C, Peakman T, Collins R. UK Biobank Data: Come and Get It. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:224ed224 PubMed

Enattah NS, et al. Identification of a variant associated with adult-type hypolactasia. Nat Genet. 2002;30:233–237. PubMed

Graffelman J. Exploring Diallelic Genetic Markers: The HardyWeinberg Package. J Stat Softw. 2015;64:1–23.

Rodriguez S, Gaunt TR, Day INM. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium testing of biological ascertainment for Mendelian randomization studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169:505–514. PubMed PMC

Karczewski KJ, et al. The mutational constraint spectrum quantified from variation in 141,456 humans. Nature. 2020;581:434–443. PubMed PMC

Mitchell R, Hemani G, Dudding T, Paternoster L. UK Biobank Genetic Data: MRC-IEU Quality Control. University of Bristol; 2019. Version 2. DOI

Brumpton B, et al. Avoiding dynastic, assortative mating, and population stratification biases in Mendelian randomization through within-family analyses. Nat Commun. 2020;11:3519. PubMed PMC

Howe LJ, et al. Genetic evidence for assortative mating on alcohol consumption in the UK Biobank. Nat Commun. 2019;10:5039. PubMed PMC

Agranat-Tamir L, et al. The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant. Cell. 2020;181:1146–1157.:e1111. PubMed PMC

Allentoft ME, et al. Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia. Nature. 2015;522:167–172. PubMed

Antonio ML, et al. Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean. Science. 2019;366:708–714. PubMed PMC

Brace S, et al. Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain. Nat Ecol Evol. 2019;3:765–771. PubMed PMC

Broushaki F, et al. Early Neolithic genomes from the eastern Fertile Crescent. Science. 2016;353:499–503. PubMed PMC

Brunel S, et al. Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117:12791. PubMed PMC

Cassidy LM, et al. Neolithic and Bronze Age migration to Ireland and establishment of the insular Atlantic genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2015;113:368–373. PubMed PMC

Cassidy LM, et al. A dynastic elite in monumental Neolithic society. Nature. 2020;582:384–388. PubMed PMC

Damgaard PdB, et al. 137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes. Nature. 2018;557:369–374. PubMed

Damgaard PdB, et al. The first horse herders and the impact of early Bronze Age steppe expansions into Asia. Science. 2018;360:eaar7711. PubMed PMC

Feldman M, et al. Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines. Sci Adv. 2019;5:eaax0061. PubMed PMC

Fernandes DM, et al. The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean. Nat Ecol Evol. 2020;4:334–345. PubMed PMC

Fu Q, et al. The genetic history of Ice Age Europe. Nature. 2016;534:200–205. PubMed PMC

González-Fortes G, et al. Paleogenomic Evidence for Multi-generational Mixing between Neolithic Farmers and Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers in the Lower Danube Basin. Curr Biol. 2017;27:1801–1810.:e1810. PubMed PMC

González-Fortes G, et al. A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula. Proc Royal Soc B. 2019;286:20182288 PubMed PMC

Günther T, et al. Population genomics of Mesolithic Scandinavia: Investigating early postglacial migration routes and high-latitude adaptation. PLoS Biol. 2018;16 PubMed PMC

Haber M, et al. Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences. Am J Hum Genet. 2017;101:274–282. PubMed PMC

Harney E, et al. Ancient DNA from Chalcolithic Israel reveals the role of population mixture in cultural transformation. Nat Commun. 2018;9:3336. PubMed PMC

Hofmanová Z, et al. Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113:6886–6891. PubMed PMC

Järve M, et al. Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance. Curr Biol. 2019;29:2430–2441.:e2410. PubMed

Jones ER, et al. The Neolithic Transition in the Baltic Was Not Driven by Admixture with Early European Farmers. Curr Biol. 2017;27:576–582. PubMed PMC

Keller A, et al. New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman’s origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing. Nat Commun. 2012;3:698. PubMed

Krzewińska M, et al. Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads. Sci Adv. 2018;4:eaat4457. PubMed PMC

Lamnidis TC, et al. Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe. Nat Commun. 2018;9:5018. PubMed PMC

Lazaridis I, et al. Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans. Nature. 2014;513:409–413. PubMed PMC

Lazaridis I, et al. Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East. Nature. 2016;536:419–424. PubMed PMC

Lazaridis I, et al. Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans. Nature. 2017;548:214–218. PubMed PMC

Linderholm A, et al. Corded Ware cultural complexity uncovered using genomic and isotopic analysis from south-eastern Poland. Sci Rep. 2020;10:6885. PubMed PMC

Lipson M, et al. Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers. Nature. 2017;551:368–372. PubMed PMC

Malmström H, et al. The genomic ancestry of the Scandinavian Battle Axe Culture people and their relation to the broader Corded Ware horizon. Proc Royal Soc B. 2019;286:20191528 PubMed PMC

Marcus JH, et al. Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia. Nat Commun. 2020;11:939. PubMed PMC

Margaryan A, et al. Population genomics of the Viking world. Nature. 2020;585:390–396. PubMed

Martiniano R, et al. The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods. PLoS Genet. 2017;13:e1006852. PubMed PMC

Mathieson I, et al. Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians. Nature. 2015;528:499–503. PubMed PMC

Mathieson I, et al. The genomic history of southeastern Europe. Nature. 2018;555:197–203. PubMed PMC

Mittnik A, et al. Kinship-based social inequality in Bronze Age Europe. Science. 2019;93:eaax6219 PubMed

Narasimhan VM, et al. The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia. Science. 2019;365 PubMed PMC

Olalde I, et al. A common genetic origin for early farmers from Mediterranean Cardial and Central European LBK cultures. Mol Biol Evol. 2015;32:3132–3142. PubMed PMC

Olalde I, et al. The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe. Nature. 2018;555:190–196. PubMed PMC

Olalde I, et al. The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years. Science. 2019;363:1230–1234. PubMed PMC

Rivollat M, et al. Ancient genome-wide DNA from France highlights the complexity of interactions between Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers. Sci Adv. 2020;6:eaaz5344. PubMed PMC

Saag L, et al. Extensive Farming in Estonia Started through a Sex-Biased Migration from the Steppe. Curr Biol. 2017;27:2185–2193.:e2186. PubMed

Sánchez-Quinto F, et al. Megalithic tombs in western and northern Neolithic Europe were linked to a kindred society. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2019;116:9469–9474. PubMed PMC

Schuenemann VJ, et al. Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15694. PubMed PMC

Schroeder H, et al. Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a Late Neolithic mass grave. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2019;116:10705–10710. PubMed PMC

Skoglund P, et al. Genomic diversity and admixture differs for Stone-Age Scandinavian foragers and farmers. Science. 2014;344:747–750. PubMed

Skourtanioti E, et al. Genomic History of Neolithic to Bronze Age Anatolia, Northern Levant, and Southern Caucasus. Cell. 2020;181:1158–1175.:e1128. PubMed

Unterlander M, et al. Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe. Nat Commun. 2017;8:14615. PubMed PMC

Valdiosera C, et al. Four millennia of Iberian biomolecular prehistory illustrate the impact of prehistoric migrations at the far end of Eurasia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2018;115:3428–3433. PubMed PMC

Villalba-Mouco V, et al. Survival of Late Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherer Ancestry in the Iberian Peninsula. Curr Biol. 2019;29:1169–1177.:e1167. PubMed

Wang C-C, et al. Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions. Nat Commun. 2019;10:590. PubMed PMC

Reich D. Allen Ancient DNA Resource (AADR): Downloadable genotypes of present-day and ancient DNA data. 2021. V44.3. https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/allen-ancient-dna-resource-aadr-downloadable-genotypes-present-day-and-ancient-dna-data.

Li H, et al. The Sequence Alignment/Map format and SAMtools. Bioinformatics. 2009;25:2078–2079. PubMed PMC

Felsenstein J. Theoretical evolutionary genetics. University of Washington; Seattle: 2016.

Brest J, Greiner S, Boskovic B, Mernik M, Zumer V. Self-adapting control parameters in differential evolution: A comparative study on numerical benchmark problems. IEEE Trans Evol Comput. 2006;10:646–657.

R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R foundation for statistical computing; 2018. Available at http://www.R-project.org/

Revell LJ. learnPopGen: An R package for population genetic simulation and numerical analysis. Ecol Evol. 2019;9:7896–7902. PubMed PMC

Jewett EM, Steinrücken M, Song YS. The Effects of Population Size Histories on Estimates of Selection Coefficients from Time-Series Genetic Data. Mol Biol Evol. 2016;33:3002–3027. PubMed PMC

Weninger B. CalPal-2007. Cologne radiocarbon calibration & palaeoclimate research package; 2007. http://www.calpal.de .

Galate P. BANADORA, Banque de données des dates radiocarbones de Lyon pour l’Europe et le Proche-Orient. 2011. http://www.archeometrie.mom.fr/banadora .

Hinz M, et al. RADON-Radiocarbon dates online 2012. Central European database of 14C dates for the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology. 2012

Manning K, Colledge S, Crema ER, Shennan S, Timpson A. The Cultural Evolution of Neolithic Europe. EUROEVOL Dataset 1: Sites, Phases and Radiocarbon Data. JOAD. 2016;5

Burrow S, Williams S. The Wales and Borders Radiocarbon Database. Amgueddfa Cymru; National Museum Wales: 2008.

Ralston I, Ashmore P. Canmore Scottish Radiocarbon Database. https://canmore.org.uk/project/919374 .

Balsera V, Diíaz-dei-Riío P, Gilman A, Uriarte A, Vicent JM. Approaching the demography of late prehistoric Iberia through summed calibrated date probability distributions (7000-2000 cal BC) Quat Int. 2015;386:208–211.

Vermeersch PM. Radiocarbon Palaeolithic Europe Database v.18. 2015. https://ees.kuleuven.be/geography/projects/14c-palaeolithic/index.html . PubMed PMC

Manning K. The Cultural Evolution of Neolithic Europe. EUROEVOL Dataset 2: Zooarchaeological data. JOAD. 2016;5

Manning K, et al. The origins and spread of stock-keeping: the role of cultural and environmental influences on early Neolithic animal exploitation in Europe. Antiquity. 2013;87:1046–1059.

Stackhouse PW, Jr, et al. POWER release 8 (with GIS applications) methodology (data parameters, sources, & validation) documentation date may 1, 2018 (all previous versions are obsolete)(data version 8.0. 1) NASA; 2018. Retrieved from https://power.larc.nasa.gov.

Ancient DNA reveals reproductive barrier despite shared Avar-period culture

Diverse prehistoric cattle husbandry strategies in the forests of Central Europe