In response to the mass adoption and extensive usage of Internet-enabled devices across the world, a major review published in this journal in 2019 examined the impact of Internet on human cognition, discussing the concepts and ideas behind the "online brain". Since then, the online world has become further entwined with the fabric of society, and the extent to which we use such technologies has continued to grow. Furthermore, the research evidence on the ways in which Internet usage affects the human mind has advanced considerably. In this paper, we sought to draw upon the latest data from large-scale epidemiological studies and systematic reviews, along with randomized controlled trials and qualitative research recently emerging on this topic, in order to now provide a multi-dimensional overview of the impacts of Internet usage across psychological, cognitive and societal outcomes. Within this, we detail the empirical evidence on how effects differ according to various factors such as age, gender, and usage types. We also draw from new research examining more experiential aspects of individuals' online lives, to understand how the specifics of their interactions with the Internet, and the impact on their lifestyle, determine the benefits or drawbacks of online time. Additionally, we explore how the nascent but intriguing areas of culturomics, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and augmented reality are changing our understanding of how the Internet can interact with brain and behavior. Overall, the importance of taking an individualized and multi-dimensional approach to how the Internet affects mental health, cognition and social functioning is clear. Furthermore, we emphasize the need for guidelines, policies and initiatives around Internet usage to make full use of the evidence available from neuroscientific, behavioral and societal levels of research presented herein.

Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course Sydney NSW Australia

Biology Centre Czech Academy of Sciences České Budějovice Czech Republic

Central Clinical School Faculty of Medicine and Health University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia

Centre for Health Performance and Wellbeing Anglia Ruskin University Cambridge UK

Department for Health University of Bath Bath UK

Department of Biology University of Oxford Oxford UK

Department of Environmental Health T H Chan School of Public Health Harvard University Boston MA USA

Department of Psychiatry Massachusetts General Hospital Boston MA USA

Department of Rehabilitation Sciences KU Leuven Leuven Belgium

Department of Sports Methods and Techniques Federal University of Santa Maria Santa Maria Brazil

Division of Digital Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School Boston MA USA

Division of Psychology and Mental Health University of Manchester Manchester Academic Health Science Centre Manchester UK

Greater Manchester Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust Manchester Academic Health Science Centre Manchester UK

Institute of Health Sciences Universidad Autônoma de Chile Providência Chile

Institute of Psychiatry Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil

Laboratoire Ecologie Systématique et Evolution Université Paris Saclay Gif sur Yvette France

One Health Research Group Universidad de las Americas Quito Ecuador

School of Biology University of Leeds Leeds UK

School of Psychology Deakin University Geelong VIC Australia

University Psychiatric Center KU Leuven Leuven Belgium

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