Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) biting midges are a diverse group of insect vectors that transmit pathogens affecting humans, livestock, and wild animals. Among them, Oropouche virus, African Horse sickness virus, and bluetongue virus are the most notable pathogens. However, comparatively little is known about which Culicoides species serve as vectors of wildlife parasites affecting wild birds globally, including the malaria-like parasite of the genus Haemoproteus (Haemosporida: Haemoproteidae) and kinetoplastid Trypanosoma (Trypanosomatida: Trypanosomatidae). Beyond the direct impact of their bites, infections by these parasites negatively affect wild birds from early developmental stages, significantly influencing their ecology and evolution. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the role of Culicoides species in the transmission of these two genera of avian parasites in Europe: Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma. We identify key information and methods used to study Culicoides-bird-parasite interactions, from insect sampling to vector competence assessment. Additionally, we highlight key knowledge gaps and propose future research directions in this area.

Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública Madrid Spain

Consorcio de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infeciosas Madrid Spain

Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa USA

Department of Parasitology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czechia

Estación Biológica de Doñana Seville Spain

Institute of Bacteriology and Parasitology UR 3073 PHAVI Medical Faculty University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France 67000

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research Sofia Bulgaria

National Center of Microbiology National Institute of Health Carlos 3 Madrid Spain

State Scientific Research Institute Nature Research Centre Vilnius Lithuania

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