Biological invasions are one of the major drivers of biodiversity decline and have been shown to have far-reaching consequences for society and the economy. Preventing the introduction and spread of alien species represents the most effective solution to reducing their impacts on nature and human well-being. However, implementing effective solutions requires a good understanding of where the species are established and how biological invasions develop over time. Knowledge of the status and trends of biological invasions is thus key for guiding research efforts, informing stakeholders and policymakers, for targeted management efforts, and preparing for the future. However, information about the status and trends of alien species is scattered, patchy, and highly incomplete, making it difficult to assess. Published reports for individual regions and taxonomic groups are available, but large-scale overviews are scarce. A global assessment therefore requires a review of available knowledge with careful consideration of sampling and reporting biases. This paper provides a comprehensive global assessment of the status and trends of alien species for major taxonomic groups [Bacteria, Protozoa, Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria (SAR), fungi, plants, and animals] for Intergovernmental Panel of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) regions. The review provides irrefutable evidence that alien species have been introduced to all regions worldwide including Antarctica and have spread to even the most remote islands. The numbers of alien species are increasing within all taxa and across all regions, and are often even accelerating. Large knowledge gaps exist, particularly for taxonomic groups other than vascular plants and vertebrates, for regions in Africa and Central Asia, and for aquatic realms. In fact, for inconspicuous species, such as Bacteria, Protozoa, and to some degree SAR and fungi, we found records for very few species and regions. Observed status and trends are thus highly influenced by research effort. More generally, it is likely that all lists for alien species of any taxonomic group and region are incomplete. The reported species numbers therefore represent minima, and we can expect additions to all lists in the near future. We identified six key challenges which need to be addressed to reduce knowledge gaps and to improve our ability to assess trends and status of biological invasions.

Associate Laboratory Terra Tapada da Ajuda Lisbon 1349 017 Portugal

Biology Department Loyola Marymount University Los Angeles CA 90045 USA

British Antarctic Survey Natural Environment Research Council High Cross Madingley Road Cambridge CB30ET UK

CABI Bakeham Lane Egham Surrey TW20 9TY UK

Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies 1336 Glen Leven Road Ann Arbor MI 48103 USA

Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research Department of Genetics Evolution and Environment University College London London WC1E 6BT UK

Centre for Functional Ecology Associate Laboratory TERRA Department of Life Sciences University of Coimbra Calçada Martim de Freitas Coimbra 3000 456 Portugal

Centre for Invasion Biology Department of Botany and Zoology Stellenbosch University Private Bag X1 Matieland Stellenbosch 7602 South Africa

Centre for Invasion Biology Department of Mathematical Sciences Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch 7602 South Africa

Centre of Geographical Studies Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning University of Lisbon R Branca Edmée Marques Lisbon 1600 276 Portugal

CNRS AgroParisTech Ecologie Société and Evolution Université Paris Saclay Paris 91190 France

Coastal and Ocean Studies Program Williams College Mystic Seaport 75 Greenmanville Ave Mystic CT 06355 USA

Departamento de Botánica Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas Universidad de Concepción Casilla 160 C 4030000 Concepción Chile

Departamento de Ecologia e Conservação Instituto de Ciências Naturais Universidade Federal de Lavras Lavras Trevo Rotatório Professor Edmir Sá Santos s n Caixa Postal 3037 Lavras MG 37200 090 Brazil

Department of Animal Ecology and Systematics Justus Liebig University Giessen Heinrich Buff Ring 26 Giessen 35392 Germany

Department of Biological Sciences Clemson University 132 Long Hall Clemson South Carolina 29634 USA

Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta T6G 2E Edmonton Alberta Canada

Department of Biological Sciences University of Toronto Scarborough 1265 Military Trail Toronto Ontario M1C 1A4 Canada

Department of Biology McGill University 1205 Docteur Penfield Montreal Quebec H3A 1B1 Canada

Department of Biology University of Florence via Madonna del Piano 6 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville TN 37996 USA

Department of Ecology Faculty of Science Charles University Viničná 7 Prague CZ 12844 Czech Republic

Department of Environmental Science and Studies DePaul University 1110 W Belden Avenue Chicago IL 60614 USA

Department of Geobotany and Ecophysiology Institute of Botany aft A Takhtajyan NAS RA Acharyan 1 0063 Yerevan Armenia

Department of Natural Resources Science University of Rhode Island Woodward Hall 9 Easy Alymnii Avenue Kingston RI 02881 USA

Department of Zoology Entomology and Fisheries Sciences Makerere University Makerere Hill Road P O Box 7062 Kampala Uganda

Division of BioInvasions Macroecology and Global Change Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research University Vienna Rennweg 14 1030 Vienna Austria

Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas Carretera Sacramento s n Almería 04120 Spain

Evolutionary Genetics Laboratory Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ankara University Agricultural Faculty Ankara 06135 Turkey

Facultad de Ciencias Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción Alonso de Ribera 2850 4090541 Concepción Chile

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Praha 6 Suchdol Czech Republic

Fundación Tortumar Chile Serrano 1112 PC 1100606 Iquique Chile

Geobotany Section Institute of Earth System Sciences Leibniz University Hannover Nienburger Strasse 17 30167 Hannover Germany

Goethe University Frankfurt Department 15 Life Sciences Institute for Ecology Evolution and Diversity Max von Laue Straße 13 60438 Frankfurt am Main Germany

Goethe University Frankfurt Department of Biological Sciences Institute of Ecology Evolution and Diversity Max von Laue Str 9 60438 Frankfurt am Main Germany

Graham Sustainability Institute 625 E Liberty Street University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48104 USA

Great Lakes Laboratory for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Fisheries and Oceans Canada 867 Lakeshore Road Burlington Ontario L7S 1A1 Canada

GRECO Institute of Aquatic Ecology University of Girona Maria Aurèlia Capmany i Farnés 69 Girona 17003 Spain

Herbario CONC Departamento de Botánica Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas Universidad de Concepción Casilla 160 C Concepción Chile

Institute of Botany Czech Academy of Sciences Zámek 1 Průhonice CZ 25243 Czech Republic

Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity Victoria Concepción 631 Chile

Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Baltzerstrasse 6 Bern 3012 Switzerland

Institute of Ecology Leuphana University of Lüneburg Universitätsallee 1 Lüneburg 21335 Germany

Institute of Integrative Biology ETH Zurich Universitätsstrasse 16 CH 8092 Zurich Switzerland

Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London London NW1 4RY UK

Instituto de Biología de Organismos Marinos Blvd Brown 2915 Puerto Madryn 9120 Argentina

Instituto de Ecología Regional 4107 Yerba Buena Tucumán Argentina

Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medio Ambiente Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas Universidad Nacional del Comahue Río Negro Argentina

Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales Puerto Madryn 9120 Chubut Argentina

Interdisciplinary Research Center of Armenian State University of Economics Nalbandyan 128 0025 Yerevan Armenia

International Scientific Educational Center of NAS RA Baghramyan 24d 0019 Yerevan Armenia

IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group Viale Cesare Pavese Rome 305 00144 Italy

IUCN The David Attenborough Building Pembroke Street Cambridge CB2 3QZ UK

Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi 680 653 Kerala India

Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação Setor de Tecnologia Departamento de Engenharia Ambiental Universidade Federal do Paraná Brazil

Laboratorio de Invasiones Biológicas Facultad de Ciencias Forestales Universidad de Concepción Victoria Concepción 631 Chile

Locally Managed Marine Area Network International Trust 41 Muktaben Place Vatuwaqa Suva Fiji

National Institute for Theoretical and Computational Sciences African Institute for Mathematical Sciences Cape Town 7945 South Africa

National Research Council of Italy Institute for BioEconomy Via dei Taurini Rome 19 00118 Italy

Nürtingen Geislingen University Neckarsteige 6 10 72622 Nürtingen Germany

Oceanographic Research Institute 1 King Shaka Avenue Durban KwaZulu Natal South Africa

Research Centre for Natural Resources Environment and Society Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra Coimbra Agriculture School Bencanta Coimbra 3045 601 Portugal

School of Biological Sciences University of Auckland Private Bag 92019 Auckland 1142 New Zealand

School of Biological Sciences Zoology building University of Aberdeen Tillydrone Avenue Aberdeen AB24 2TZ UK

School of Geography Earth Science and Environment University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji

School of Life Sciences University of Hawai'i at Mānoa Honolulu HI 96822 USA

School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Westville campus University Road Westville Durban 3629 South Africa

Scientific Services South African National Parks Private Bag X402 Skukuza 1350 South Africa

Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre Senckenberganlage 25 Frankfurt 60325 Germany

Senckenberg Museum for Natural History Görlitz Am Museum 1 02826 Görlitz Germany

Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Department of Marine Zoology Biodiversity Information Section Senckenberganlage 25 60325 Frankfurt am Main Germany

Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL Zürcherstrasse 111 Birmensdorf 8903 Switzerland

The Key Laboratory of Mariculture Ministry of Education College of Fisheries Ocean University of China 5 Yushan Road Qingdao Shandong Province 266005 People's Republic of China

The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies Tel Aviv University Klausner 12 Tel Aviv 69978 Israel

United States Dept of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Foreign Disease Weed Science Research Unit 1301 Ditto Avenu Fort Detrick MD 21702 USA

USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Morgantown WV 26505 USA

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