Background: Gender discrimination may be a novel mechanism through which gender inequality negatively affects the health of women and girls. We investigated whether children's mental health varied with maternal exposure to perceived gender discrimination. Methods: Complete longitudinal data was available on 2,567 mother-child dyads who were enrolled between March 1, 1991 and June 30, 1992 in the European Longitudinal Cohort Study of Pregnancy and Childhood-Czech cohort and were surveyed at multiple time points between pregnancy and child age up to 15 years. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was administered at child age 7, 11, and 15 years to assess child emotional/behavioural difficulties. Perceived gender discrimination was self-reported in mid-pregnancy and child age 7 and 11 years. Multilevel mixed-effects linear regression of SDQ scores were estimated. Mediation was tested using structural equation models. Findings: Perceived gender discrimination, reported by 11.2% of mothers in mid-pregnancy, was related to increased emotional/behavioural difficulties among children in bivariate analysis (slope = 0.24 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.15, 0.32], p<0.0001) and in the fully adjusted model (slope = 0.18 [95% CI: 0.09, 0.27], p<0.0001). Increased difficulties were evident among children of mothers with more depressive symptoms (slope = 0.04 [95% CI: 0.03, 0.05], p<0.0001), boys (slope = 0.26 [95% CI: 0.19, 0.34], p<0.0001), first children (slope = 0.16 [95% CI: 0.09, 0.23], p<0.0001), and families under financial hardship (slope = 0.09 [95% CI: 0.04, 0.14], p<0.0001). Effects were attenuated for married mothers (slope-0.12 [95% CI: -0.22, -0.01], p<0.05]. Maternal depressive symptoms and financial hardship mediated about 37% and 13%, respectively, of the total effect of perceived gender discrimination on SDQ scores. Interpretation: Perceived gender discrimination among child-bearing women in family contexts was associated with more mental health problems among their children and adolescents, extending prior research showing associations with maternal mental health problems. Maternal depressive symptoms and, to a lesser extent, financial hardship both partially mediated the positive relationship between perceived gender discrimination and child emotional/behavioural problems. This should be taken into consideration when measuring the societal burden of gender inequality and gender-based discrimination. Moreover, gender-based discrimination affects more than one gender and more than one generation, extending to boys in the household even moreso than girls, highlighting that gender discrimination is everyone's issue. Further research is required on the intergenerational mechanisms whereby gender discrimination may lead to maternal and child mental health consequences. Funding: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, Czech Republic and European Structural and Investment Funds.
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
In this comparative study, six causality detection methods were compared, namely, the Granger vector autoregressive test, the extended Granger test, the kernel version of the Granger test, the conditional mutual information (transfer entropy), the evaluation of cross mappings between state spaces, and an assessment of predictability improvement due to the use of mixed predictions. Seven test data sets were analyzed: linear coupling of autoregressive models, a unidirectional connection of two Hénon systems, a unidirectional connection of chaotic systems of Rössler and Lorenz type and of two different Rössler systems, an example of bidirectionally connected two-species systems, a fishery model as an example of two correlated observables without a causal relationship, and an example of mediated causality. We tested not only 20000 points long clean time series but also noisy and short variants of the data. The standard and the extended Granger tests worked only for the autoregressive models. The remaining methods were more successful with the more complex test examples, although they differed considerably in their capability to reveal the presence and the direction of coupling and to distinguish causality from mere correlation.
- MeSH
- Time Factors MeSH
- Causality MeSH
- Systems Analysis MeSH
- Models, Theoretical * MeSH
- Publication type
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
- Comparative Study MeSH
... 125 -- 7 Frameworks 131 -- Definition of Terms 131 Concept 132 Relational Statements 135 Conceptual Models ... ... Framework From Substantive Theory 150 Constructing a Study Framework on the Basis of a Conceptual Model ... ... Surveys 256 Correlational Studies 256 -- Descriptive Correlational Design 256 Predictive Design 257 Model-Testing ... ... Data Analysis Issues 591 -- Using the Computer for Qualitative Analysis 591 Auditability 593 Method Mixing ... ... of Diffusion of Innovations 686 -- Havelock’s Linker Systems 690 Research Utilization Projects and Models ...
4th ed. xx, 840 s. : il.
... - Tests of Contrasts across Group Means 131 -- ( Univariate Analysis of Variance 135 -- Regression Model ... ... Nested Design Model 165 -- Univariate Repeated Measures Analysis Using a Split-Plot Design Approach ... ... 172 -- |Bivariate and Partial Correlations 177 -- Pearson Correlations with Pairwise and Listwise Methods ... ... Analysis 243 -- Two Groups: Describing Differences and Classifying Cases 250 -- Revisiting the Two-Group Model ... ... 260 -- A Four-Group Model with Variable Selection 267 -- Selecting Variables to Separate the Closest ...
[1st ed.] xi, 412 s.
