The higher termites (Termitidae) are keystone species and ecosystem engineers. They have exceptional biomass and play important roles in decomposition of dead plant matter, in soil manipulation, and as the primary food for many animals, especially in the tropics. Higher termites are most diverse in rainforests, with estimated origins in the late Eocene (∼54 Ma), postdating the breakup of Pangaea and Gondwana when most continents became separated. Since termites are poor fliers, their origin and spread across the globe requires alternative explanation. Here, we show that higher termites originated 42-54 Ma in Africa and subsequently underwent at least 24 dispersal events between the continents in two main periods. Using phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial genomes from 415 species, including all higher termite taxonomic and feeding groups, we inferred 10 dispersal events to South America and Asia 35-23 Ma, coinciding with the sharp decrease in global temperature, sea level, and rainforest cover in the Oligocene. After global temperatures increased, 23-5 Ma, there was only one more dispersal to South America but 11 to Asia and Australia, and one dispersal back to Africa. Most of these dispersal events were transoceanic and might have occurred via floating logs. The spread of higher termites across oceans was helped by the novel ecological opportunities brought about by environmental and ecosystem change, and led termites to become one of the few insect groups with specialized mammal predators. This has parallels with modern invasive species that have been able to thrive in human-impacted ecosystems.

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine Grenoble France

Department of Biological Sciences National University of Singapore Singapore Singapore

Department of Plant Protection Faculty of Agricultural Sciences Ghazi University Dera Ghazi Khan Pakistan

Evolutionary Biology and Ecology Université Libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Institut de Recherche pour le Développement Sorbonne Universités iEES Paris Bondy France

Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine Université Grenoble Alpes Grenoble France

School of Animal Biology University of Western Australia Perth WA Australia

School of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia

Université Paris 13 Sorbonne Paris Cité LEEC Villetaneuse France

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