Owing to a long history of anthropogenic pressures, freshwater ecosystems are among the most vulnerable to biodiversity loss1. Mitigation measures, including wastewater treatment and hydromorphological restoration, have aimed to improve environmental quality and foster the recovery of freshwater biodiversity2. Here, using 1,816 time series of freshwater invertebrate communities collected across 22 European countries between 1968 and 2020, we quantified temporal trends in taxonomic and functional diversity and their responses to environmental pressures and gradients. We observed overall increases in taxon richness (0.73% per year), functional richness (2.4% per year) and abundance (1.17% per year). However, these increases primarily occurred before the 2010s, and have since plateaued. Freshwater communities downstream of dams, urban areas and cropland were less likely to experience recovery. Communities at sites with faster rates of warming had fewer gains in taxon richness, functional richness and abundance. Although biodiversity gains in the 1990s and 2000s probably reflect the effectiveness of water-quality improvements and restoration projects, the decelerating trajectory in the 2010s suggests that the current measures offer diminishing returns. Given new and persistent pressures on freshwater ecosystems, including emerging pollutants, climate change and the spread of invasive species, we call for additional mitigation to revive the recovery of freshwater biodiversity.

Agencia Vasca del Agua Vitoria Gasteiz Spain

APEM Stockport UK

ARALEP Ecologie des Eaux Douces Villeurbanne France

Brain Capital Alliance San Francisco CA USA

Centre for Freshwater and Environmental Studies Dundalk Institute of Technology Dundalk Ireland

Chair of Hydrobiology and Fishery Centre for Limnology Estonian University of Life Sciences Elva vald Estonia

Conservation Ecology Center Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute Front Royal VA USA

Departamento de Medio Ambiente y Obras Hidráulicas Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa Donostia San Sebastián Spain

Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology Ghent University Ghent Belgium

Department of Aquatic Ecology Eawag Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology Dübendorf Switzerland

Department of Aquatic Ecosystems Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria

Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden

Department of Biological Sciences University of Bergen Bergen Norway

Department of Botany and Zoology Faculty of Science Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Department of Community and Ecosystem Ecology Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Berlin Germany

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences DISAT University of Milano Bicocca Milan Italy

Department of Ecology and Genetics University of Oulu Oulu Finland

Department of Ecology and Hydrology University of Murcia Murcia Spain

Department of Ecoscience Aarhus University Aarhus Denmark

Department of Ecosystem Services German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle Jena Leipzig Leipzig Germany

Department of Ecosystem Services Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research UFZ Leipzig Germany

Department of Environmental Planning Environmental Technology University of Applied Sciences Trier Birkenfeld Germany

Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies University of Zurich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Forest Ecology and Management Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Umeå Sweden

Department of Geography Ecology and Environment Protection Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences South West University 'Neofit Rilski' Blagoevgrad Bulgaria

Department of Hydrobiology University of Pécs Pécs Hungary

Department of Hydrology and Water Resources Management Christian Albrechts University Kiel Institute for Natural Resource Conservation Kiel Germany

Department of Life Sciences University of Coimbra Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre ARNET Coimbra Portugal

Department of Plant Biology and Ecology University of the Basque Country Leioa Spain

Department of River Ecology and Conservation Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt Gelnhausen Germany

Department of Tisza River Research Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Aquatic Ecology Debrecen Hungary

Department of Water Atmosphere and Environment Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna Austria

Ekolur Asesoría Ambiental SLL Oiartzun Spain

Environment Agency Wallingford UK

Environmental Research and Innovation Department Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology Esch sur Alzette Luxembourg

Faculty of Biology University of Duisburg Essen Essen Germany

FEHM Lab Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research CSIC Barcelona Spain

FEHM Lab University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain

Fisheries Ecosystems Advisory Services Marine Institute Newport Ireland

Flanders Environment Agency Aalst Belgium

Freshwater Biological Section University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Geography Department Humboldt Universität zu Berlin Berlin Germany

Geography Research Unit University of Oulu Oulu Finland

IHCantabria Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad de Cantabria Santander Spain

IMPACT The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation Deakin University Geelong Victoria Australia

INRAE UMR RECOVER Aix Marseille Univ Centre d'Aix en Provence Aix en Provence France

INRAE UR RiverLy Centre de Lyon Villeurbanne Villeurbanne France

Institute for Alpine Environment Eurac Research Bolzano Italy

Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands

Institute for Environmental Science RPTU Kaiserslautern Landau Landau Germany

Institute for Green Science Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA USA

Institute of Biodiversity Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany

Institute of Biology University of Latvia Riga Latvia

Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique et Environnement EDF Recherche et Développement Chatou France

Laboratory of Evolutionary Ecology of Hydrobionts Nature Research Centre Vilnius Lithuania

LFI The Laboratory for Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries NORCE Norwegian Research Centre Bergen Norway

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research Oslo Norway

Norwegian Institute for Water Research Oslo Norway

Oulanka Research Station University of Oulu Infrastructure Platform Kuusamo Finland

School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Queen Mary University of London London UK

School of Geography University of Leeds Leeds UK

School of Natural Resources University of Nebraska Lincoln Lincoln NE USA

School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham UK

School of the Environment Yale University New Haven CT USA

T G Masaryk Water Research Institute Brno Czech Republic

UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster UK

Univ Lyon Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 CNRS ENTPE UMR 5023 LEHNA Villeurbanne France

Wageningen Environmental Research Wageningen University and Research Wageningen The Netherlands

Water Development Department Ministry of Agriculture Rural Development and Environment Nicosia Cyprus

Wessex Water Bath UK

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