During 2012-2014 up to 286 birds of the orders Falconiformes (5 species), Accipitriformes (11 species), and Strigiformes (7 species) were examined for trematodes and this represents the first detailed study in Slovakia. A total of 12 trematode species belonging to the families Diplostomidae, Cyathocotylidae, Strigeidae, and Opisthorchiidae were identified. Rare infections were found in falcons where only two species (40 %) and three of 85 examined birds (3.5 %) were infected with a low range of two to four worms of generalists Strigea falconis or Plagiorchis elegans. Contrary to that, ten accipitriformes species (90.9 %) and 63 of 156 bird individuals (40.4 %) were infected with nine flukes: Conodiplostomum perlatum, Conodiplostomum spathula, Neodiplostomum attenuatum, Neodiplostomum spathoides, Parastrigea flexilis, Strigea falconis, Strigea vandenbrokae, Paracoenogonimus ovatus, and Metorchis bilis. S. falconis and N. attenuatum were the most frequent, occurring in parallel in eight and four bird species, in numbers up to 575 and 224. The intensity of infection with other fluke species was low ranging from one to 13 worms. Three owl (Strigiformes) representatives (42.9 %) were exclusive hosts for Neodiplostomum canaliculatum and Strigea strigis, and the proportion of positive and dissected individual birds was 10:45 (22.2 %). Both trematodes occurred in two or three owl species. In conclusion, apparent dissimilarity of trematode load of three unrelated lines of falcons, eagles, and owls was revealed. The present study extends our knowledge on the composition of the trematode fauna in Slovakia as all species except S. falconis and P. elegans that represent new host and species records in Slovakia.
- MeSH
- Raptors parasitology MeSH
- Falconiformes parasitology MeSH
- Host Specificity MeSH
- Trematode Infections epidemiology parasitology veterinary MeSH
- Liver parasitology MeSH
- Bird Diseases epidemiology parasitology MeSH
- Intestinal Diseases, Parasitic epidemiology parasitology veterinary MeSH
- Parasitic Diseases, Animal epidemiology parasitology MeSH
- Intestines parasitology MeSH
- Strigiformes parasitology MeSH
- Trematoda isolation & purification MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Geographicals
- Slovakia epidemiology MeSH
Variation in reactions to aposematic prey is common among conspecific individuals of bird predators. It may result from different individual experience but it also exists among naive birds. This variation may possibly be explained by the effect of personality--a complex of correlated, heritable behavioural traits consistent across contexts. In the great tit (Parus major), two extreme personality types have been defined. 'Fast' explorers are bold, aggressive and routine-forming; 'slow' explorers are shy, non-aggressive and innovative. Influence of personality type on unlearned reaction to aposematic prey, rate of avoidance learning and memory were tested in naive, hand-reared great tits from two opposite lines selected for exploration (slow against fast). The birds were subjected to a sequence of trials in which they were offered aposematic adult firebugs (Pyrrhocoris apterus). Slow birds showed a greater degree of unlearned wariness and learned to avoid the firebugs faster than fast birds. Although birds of both personality types remembered their experience, slow birds were more cautious in the memory test. We conclude that not only different species but also populations of predators that differ in proportions of personality types may have different impacts on survival of aposematic insects under natural conditions.
- MeSH
- Behavior, Animal physiology MeSH
- Heteroptera growth & development MeSH
- Personality MeSH
- Passeriformes classification physiology MeSH
- Predatory Behavior physiology MeSH
- Avoidance Learning physiology MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
Avian haemosporidians are common vector-borne blood parasites that have been reported in birds all over the world. Investigations of avian haemosporidian parasites are conducted mainly on passerine birds. However, studies that focus on non-passerine avian hosts are important for our understanding of the true diversity, host specificity and genetic variability among these widespread parasites. In the present study, blood samples from a total of 22 raptor birds belonging to two orders, two families and six species from the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey were investigated for three genera of avian haemosporidians (Plasmodium Marchiafava et Celli, 1885, Haemoproteus Kruse, 1890 and Leucocytozoon Sambon, 1908) using a combination of microscopic examination of blood films and nested PCR targeting the parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (cyt-b). In total, six individual raptor birds identified positive for species of Plasmodium or Leucocytozoon and one individual was found co-infected with all three haemosporidian genera. We identified five parasite cyt-b haplotypes, three of which were reported for the first time. Among these, one Plasmodium haplotype is linked to a corresponding morphospecies (P-TURDUS1, Plasmodium circumflexum Kikuth, 1931). All haplotypes were clearly distinguishable in phylogenetic analyses. As one of the first studies to investigate blood parasites from non-passerine birds in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey, this study provides important new information on the phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity of avian haemosporidian parasites from raptor birds. We discuss these findings in the context of avian haemosporidian host-parasite relationships and we draw attention to the need for microscopy to detect parasite sexual development stages in surveys of avian haemosporidians.
- MeSH
- Raptors parasitology MeSH
- Phylogeny * MeSH
- Genetic Variation MeSH
- Haemosporida classification cytology genetics MeSH
- Polymerase Chain Reaction MeSH
- DNA, Protozoan genetics MeSH
- Animals MeSH
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- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Geographicals
- Turkey MeSH
Social learning plays an important role in acquiring new foraging skills and food preferences in many bird species but its potential role in learning to avoid aposematic prey has never been studied. We tested the effect of social learning on the acquisition of avoidance of aposematic insect prey (firebug Pyrrhocoris apterus; Heteroptera) in juvenile, hand-reared great tits (Parus major). Behaviour towards aposematic prey was compared between two groups of birds: (1) the observers that were, prior to encounter with firebugs, allowed to watch the experienced conspecific demonstrator repeatedly refuse to attack the prey, and (2) the control birds that lacked this opportunity. Observing an experienced demonstrator was not sufficient for learning complete avoidance, because birds from both groups attacked at least the first firebug they had encountered in avoidance training. However, the opportunity to observe the avoidance behaviour of another bird significantly increased the rate of subsequent individual learning of observers in comparison with control birds. Social learning also decreased mortality of firebugs killed by the birds during the avoidance learning. Socially enhanced learning to avoid aposematic prey might be a mechanism important especially for naive juvenile birds learning from their parents, but it could also enhance learning in adults from their more experienced flock mates. Because social learning of avoidance may also lead to decreased mortality of aposematic prey, its effect should be taken into account in scenarios considering evolution and maintenance of prey warning signals.
- MeSH
- Heteroptera physiology MeSH
- Passeriformes physiology MeSH
- Predatory Behavior * MeSH
- Social Learning * MeSH
- Avoidance Learning * MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Male MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
European tits (Paridae) exhibit species-specific levels of initial wariness towards aposematic prey. This wariness may be caused by neophobia, dietary conservatism or innate bias against particular prey traits. We assessed the contribution of these three mechanisms to the behaviour of juvenile tits towards novel palatable prey and novel aposematic prey. We compared levels of initial wariness in great tits (Parus major), blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and coal tits (Periparus ater), and tested how the wariness can be deactivated by experience with a palatable prey. One group of birds was pre-trained to attack familiar naturally coloured mealworms the other one, novel red-painted mealworms. Then all the birds were offered a novel palatable prey of different colour and shape: cricket (Acheta domestica) with blue sticker, and then a novel aposematic firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus). The three species of tits differed in how the experience with a novel palatable prey affected their behaviour towards another novel prey. Great tits and coal tits from experienced groups significantly decreased their neophobia towards both palatable prey and aposematic prey while blue tits did not change their strongly neophobic reactions. The interspecific differences may be explained by differences in body size, geographic range, and habitat specialisation.
- MeSH
- Species Specificity MeSH
- Biological Mimicry physiology MeSH
- Passeriformes MeSH
- Predatory Behavior physiology MeSH
- Age Factors MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Geographicals
- Europe MeSH
It is supposed that body size serves as an important cue in the recognition of relevant stimuli in nature. As predators of varying body size pose differing levels of threat, their potential prey should be able to discriminate between them. We tested the reaction of great tits (Parus major) to the dummies of their common predator (the European sparrowhawk-Accipiter nisus) in natural and reduced body sizes under laboratory conditions. All of the tested dummies possessed local raptor-specific features (hooked beak, claws with talons, and conspicuous eyes), but differed in global species-specific features: body size (large - the size of a sparrowhawk, small - the size of a great tit) and colouration (sparrowhawk, great tit, robin, and pigeon). The sparrowhawk-coloured dummies evoked fear regardless of their size while both great tit- and pigeon-coloured dummies evoked no fear reaction. The body size was used as the cue only for the discrimination of the robin-coloured dummies. The differences in reactions to the dummies with robin colouration (species unimportant to the great tits) could be explained as that the tits are able to recognize these birds in nature, but not so undoubtedly as the predator or the conspecific.
- MeSH
- Anseriformes classification MeSH
- Raptors injuries MeSH
- Ecology methods organization & administration legislation & jurisprudence MeSH
- Geese injuries MeSH
- Ducks classification injuries MeSH
- Columbiformes injuries MeSH
- Hospitals, Animal organization & administration trends MeSH
- Endangered Species * MeSH
- Birds classification injuries MeSH
- Statistics as Topic MeSH
- Veterinary Medicine * methods organization & administration MeSH
- Conservation of Natural Resources * economics methods legislation & jurisprudence MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
Insectivorous birds feed upon all developmental stages of herbivorous insects, including insect eggs if larvae and adults are unavailable. Insect egg deposition on plants can induce plant traits that are subsequently exploited by egg parasitoids searching for hosts. However, it is unknown whether avian predators can also use egg-induced plant changes for prey localization. Here, we studied whether great tits (Parus major) and blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) are attracted by traits of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) induced by pine sawfly (Diprion pini) egg deposition. We chose this plant - insect system because sawfly egg deposition on pine needles is known to locally and systemically induce a change in pine volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and tits are known to prey upon sawfly eggs. In dual choice laboratory experiments, we simultaneously offered the birds an egg-free control branch and a systemically egg-induced branch. Significantly more birds visited the egg-induced branch first. We confirmed by GC-MS analyses that systemically egg-induced branches released more (E)-β-farnesene compared to control branches. Spectrophotometric analyses showed that control branches reflected more light than egg-induced branches throughout the avian visual range. Although a discrimination threshold model for blue tits suggests that the birds are poor at discriminating this visual difference, the role of visual stimuli in attracting the birds to egg-induced pines cannot be discounted. Our study shows, for the first time, that egg-induced odorous and/or visual plant traits can help birds to locate insect eggs without smelling or seeing those eggs.
- MeSH
- Pinus sylvestris chemistry metabolism parasitology MeSH
- Behavior, Animal MeSH
- Hymenoptera growth & development physiology MeSH
- Host-Parasite Interactions MeSH
- Ovum physiology MeSH
- Passeriformes physiology MeSH
- Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry MeSH
- Sesquiterpenes chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Spectrophotometry MeSH
- Volatile Organic Compounds chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Visual Perception MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- MeSH
- Raptors parasitology MeSH
- Coccidiosis parasitology veterinary MeSH
- Bird Diseases parasitology MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
