This review updates the current status of activities related to hazard characterisation for mycotoxins, with special reference to regulatory work accomplished within the European Union. Because the relevant information on these topics is widely scattered in the scientific literature, this review intends to provide a condensed overview on the most pertinent aspects. Human health risk assessment is a procedure to estimate the nature and potential for harmful effects of mycotoxins on human health due to exposure to them via contaminated food. This assessment involves hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Mycotoxins covered in this review are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin, trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2, and HT-2 toxins), fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, and ergot alkaloids. For mycotoxins with clear genotoxic/carcinogenic properties, the focus is on the margin of exposure approach. One of its goals is to document predictive characterisation of the human hazard, based on studies in animals using conditions of low exposure. For the other, non-genotoxic toxins, individual 'no adverse effect levels' have been established, but structural analogues or modified forms may still complicate assessment. During the process of hazard characterisation, each identified effect is assessed for human relevance. The estimation of a 'safe dose' is the hazard characterisation endpoint. The final aim of all of these activities is to establish a system, which is able to minimise and control the risk for the consumer from mycotoxins in food. Ongoing research on mycotoxins constantly comes up with new findings, which may have to be implemented into this system.

• Klíčová slova
• Food, Hazard characterisation, Health risk assessment, Mycotoxins, Total diet study,
• MeSH
• aflatoxiny * analýza   MeSH
• fumonisiny * analýza   MeSH
• kontaminace potravin analýza   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * analýza   MeSH
• námelové alkaloidy * MeSH
• patulin * analýza   MeSH
• zearalenon * analýza   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• aflatoxiny * MeSH
• fumonisiny * MeSH
• mykotoxiny * MeSH
• námelové alkaloidy * MeSH
• patulin * MeSH
• zearalenon * MeSH

We present a biological profile of 16 Aspergillus niger environmental isolates from different types of soils and solid substrates across a pH range, from an ultra-acidic (<3.5) to a very strongly alkaline (>9.0) environment. The soils and solid substrates also differ in varying degrees of anthropic pollution, which in most cases is caused by several centuries of mining activity at old mining sites, sludge beds, ore deposits, stream sediments, and coal dust. The values of toxic elements (As, Sb, Zn, Cu, Pb) very often exceed the limit values. The isolates possess different macro- and micromorphological features. All the identifications of Aspergillus niger isolates were confirmed by molecular PCR analysis and their similarity was expressed by RAMP analysis. The biochemical profile of isolates based on FF-MicroPlate tests from the Biolog system showed identical biochemical reactions in 50 tests, while in 46 tests the utilisation reactions differed. The highest similarity of strains isolated from substrates with the same pH, as well as the most suitable biochemical tests for analysis of the phenotypic similarity of isolated strains, were confirmed when evaluating the biochemical profile using multicriterial analysis in the Canoco program. The isolates were screened for mycotoxin production by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), as well. Two of them were able to synthesise ochratoxin A, while none produced fumonisins under experimental conditions. Presence of toxic compounds in contaminated sites may affect environmental microscopic fungi and cause the genome alteration, which may result in changes of their physiology, including the production of different (secondary) metabolites, such as mycotoxins.

• Klíčová slova
• Aspergillus niger environmental isolates, Biolog FF MicroplateTM, extrolite profile, molecular analyses, multi-criteria data analysis,
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

Spices are imported worldwide mainly from developing countries with tropical and/or subtropical climate. Local conditions, such as high temperature, heavy rainfall, and humidity, promote fungal growth leading to increased occurrence of mycotoxins in spices. Moreover, the lack of good agricultural practice (GAP), good manufacturing practice (GMP), and good hygienic practice (GHP) in developing countries are of great concern. This review summarizes recent data from a total of 56 original papers dealing with mycotoxins and microfungi in various spices in the last five years. A total of 38 kinds of spices, 17 mycotoxins, and 14 microfungi are discussed in the review. Worldwide, spices are rather overlooked in terms of mycotoxin regulations, which usually only cover aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA). In this paper, an extensive attention is devoted to the limits on mycotoxins in spices in the context of the European Union (EU) as well as other countries. As proven in this review, the incidence of AFs and OTA, as well as other mycotoxins, is relatively high in many spices; thus, the preparation of new regulation limits is advisable.

• Klíčová slova
• contamination, microfungi, mycotoxin, spices,
• MeSH
• aflatoxiny analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• časové faktory MeSH
• houby izolace a purifikace   MeSH
• internacionalita * zákonodárství a právo   MeSH
• kontaminace potravin zákonodárství a právo   prevence a kontrola   MeSH
• koření škodlivé účinky   analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• aflatoxiny MeSH
• mykotoxiny MeSH

We investigated ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in raisin samples purchased from Slovak markets and determined the diversity of black-spored aspergilli as potential OTA and fumonisin (FB1 and FB2) producers. The taxonomic identification was performed using sequences of the nuclear ITS1-5.8s-ITS2 region, the calmodulin and beta-tubulin genes. We obtained 239 isolates from eight fungal genera, of which 197 belonged to Aspergillus (82%) and 42 strains (18%) to other fungal genera. OTA contamination was evidenced in 75% of the samples and its level ranged from 0.8 to 10.6 µg/kg. The combination of all three markers used enabled unambiguous identification of A. carbonarius, A. luchuensis, A. niger, A. tubingensis and A. welwitschiae. The dominant coloniser, simultaneously having the highest within-species diversity isolated from our raisin samples, was A. tubingensis. Out of all analysed strains, only A. carbonarius was found to produce OTA, but in relatively high quantity (2477-4382 µg/kg). The production of FB1 and FB2 was evidenced in A. niger strains only.

• Klíčová slova
• HPLC, beta-tubulin, calmodulin, food spoilage, fungal diversity, mycotoxin,
• MeSH
• Aspergillus genetika   metabolismus   MeSH
• fumonisiny metabolismus   toxicita   MeSH
• fylogeneze MeSH
• genetická variace * MeSH
• hodnocení rizik MeSH
• konzervace potravin MeSH
• ochratoxiny metabolismus   toxicita   MeSH
• ovoce mikrobiologie   MeSH
• potravinářská mikrobiologie MeSH
• Vitis mikrobiologie   MeSH
• vysoušení MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• fumonisin B1 MeSH Prohlížeč
• fumonisin B2 MeSH Prohlížeč
• fumonisiny MeSH
• ochratoxin A MeSH Prohlížeč
• ochratoxiny MeSH

Species of the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFC) cause a wide spectrum of often devastating diseases on diverse agricultural crops, including coffee, fig, mango, maize, rice, and sugarcane. Although species within the FFC are difficult to distinguish by morphology, and their genes often share 90% sequence similarity, they can differ in host plant specificity and life style. FFC species can also produce structurally diverse secondary metabolites (SMs), including the mycotoxins fumonisins, fusarins, fusaric acid, and beauvericin, and the phytohormones gibberellins, auxins, and cytokinins. The spectrum of SMs produced can differ among closely related species, suggesting that SMs might be determinants of host specificity. To date, genomes of only a limited number of FFC species have been sequenced. Here, we provide draft genome sequences of three more members of the FFC: a single isolate of F. mangiferae, the cause of mango malformation, and two isolates of F. proliferatum, one a pathogen of maize and the other an orchid endophyte. We compared these genomes to publicly available genome sequences of three other FFC species. The comparisons revealed species-specific and isolate-specific differences in the composition and expression (in vitro and in planta) of genes involved in SM production including those for phytohormome biosynthesis. Such differences have the potential to impact host specificity and, as in the case of F. proliferatum, the pathogenic versus endophytic life style.

• Klíčová slova
• Fusarium fujikuroi species complex, evolution, genome sequencing, in planta expression, metabolomics, secondary metabolism,
• MeSH
• fungální proteiny genetika   metabolismus   MeSH
• Fusarium genetika   izolace a purifikace   patogenita   MeSH
• genom fungální * MeSH
• hostitelská specificita genetika   MeSH
• kukuřice setá mikrobiologie   MeSH
• Mangifera mikrobiologie   MeSH
• metabolom MeSH
• molekulární evoluce MeSH
• Orchidaceae mikrobiologie   MeSH
• polymorfismus genetický * MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• fungální proteiny MeSH

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by microfungi that are capable of causing disease and death in humans and other animals. This work was aimed at investigation of influence of mouldy wheat contaminated by pathogenic fungi producing mycotoxins on metallothionein levels in hepatic tissue of rats. The rats were administrating feed mixtures with different contents of vitamins or naturally mouldy wheat for 28 days. It was found that the wheat contained deoxynivalenol (80 +/- 5 microg per kg of mouldy wheat), zearalenone (56 +/- 3 microg/kg), T2-toxin (20 +/- 2 microg/kg) and aflatoxins as a sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2 (3.9 +/- 0.2 microg/kg). Rats were fed diets containing 0, 33, 66 and 100% naturally moulded wheat. Control group 0, 33, 66 and 100% contained vitamins according to Nutrient Requirements of Rats (NRC). Other four groups (control group with vitamins, vit33, vit66 and vit100%) were fed on the same levels of mouldy wheat, also vitamins at levels 100% higher than the previous mixtures. We determined weight, feed conversion and performed dissection to observe pathological processes. Changes between control group and experimental groups exposed to influence of mouldy wheat and experimental groups supplemented by higher concentration of vitamins and mouldy wheat were not observed. Livers were sampled and did not demonstrate significant changes in morphology compared to control either. In the following experiments the levels of metallothionein as a marker of oxidative stress was determined. We observed a quite surprising trend in metallothionein levels in animals supplemented with increased concentration of vitamins. Its level enhanced with increasing content of mouldy wheat. It was possible to determine a statistically significant decline (p<0.05) between control group and groups of animals fed with 33, 66 and 100% mouldy wheat. It is likely that some mycotoxins presented in mouldy wheat are able to block the mechanism of metallothionein synthesis.

• Klíčová slova
• Brdicka reaction, Differential pulse voltammetry, Fungi, Liver metabolism, Metallothionein, Mycotoxins, Rats, Vitamins,
• MeSH
• aflatoxiny chemie   toxicita   MeSH
• houby izolace a purifikace   metabolismus   MeSH
• játra účinky léků   metabolismus   patologie   MeSH
• krysa rodu Rattus MeSH
• metalothionein metabolismus   MeSH
• oxidační stres účinky léků   MeSH
• potkani Wistar MeSH
• pšenice mikrobiologie   MeSH
• T-2 toxin chemie   toxicita   MeSH
• tělesná hmotnost účinky léků   MeSH
• trichotheceny chemie   toxicita   MeSH
• vitaminy farmakologie   MeSH
• zearalenon chemie   toxicita   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• krysa rodu Rattus MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• aflatoxiny MeSH
• deoxynivalenol MeSH Prohlížeč
• metalothionein MeSH
• T-2 toxin MeSH
• trichotheceny MeSH
• vitaminy MeSH
• zearalenon MeSH