Cercarial dermatitis (swimmer's itch) is a condition caused by infective larvae (cercariae) of a species-rich group of mammalian and avian schistosomes. Over the last decade, it has been reported in areas that previously had few or no cases of dermatitis and is thus considered an emerging disease. It is obvious that avian schistosomes are responsible for the majority of reported dermatitis outbreaks around the world, and thus they are the primary focus of this review. Although they infect humans, they do not mature and usually die in the skin. Experimental infections of avian schistosomes in mice show that in previously exposed hosts, there is a strong skin immune reaction that kills the schistosome. However, penetration of larvae into naive mice can result in temporary migration from the skin. This is of particular interest because the worms are able to migrate to different organs, for example, the lungs in the case of visceral schistosomes and the central nervous system in the case of nasal schistosomes. The risk of such migration and accompanying disorders needs to be clarified for humans and animals of interest (e.g., dogs). Herein we compiled the most comprehensive review of the diversity, immunology, and epidemiology of avian schistosomes causing cercarial dermatitis.

Department of Parasitology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Parasitology Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic České Budějovice Czech Republic

Museum Southwestern Biology Department of Biology University of New Mexico Albuquerque New Mexico USA

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MrgprA3 neurons drive cutaneous immunity against helminths through selective control of myeloid-derived IL-33

Other Schistosomatoidea and Diplostomoidea

Molecular identification of Trichobilharzia species in recreational waters in North-Eastern Poland

Cercariae of a Bird Schistosome Follow a Similar Emergence Pattern under Different Subarctic Conditions: First Experimental Study

Somatic Dimorphism in Cercariae of a Bird Schistosome

Mechanisms of the host immune response and helminth-induced pathology during Trichobilharzia regenti (Schistosomatidae) neuroinvasion in mice

Nitric oxide debilitates the neuropathogenic schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti in mice, partly by inhibiting its vital peptidases

Confirmation of the presence of zoonotic Trichobilharzia franki following a human cercarial dermatitis outbreak in recreational water in Slovakia

The chemotactic swimming behavior of bird schistosome miracidia in the presence of compatible and incompatible snail hosts

Isoforms of Cathepsin B1 in Neurotropic Schistosomula of Trichobilharzia regenti Differ in Substrate Preferences and a Highly Expressed Catalytically Inactive Paralog Binds Cystatin

Cercarial dermatitis: a systematic follow-up study of human cases with implications for diagnostics

Potamopyrgus antipodarum as a potential defender against swimmer's itch in European recreational water bodies-experimental study

Changes in surface glycosylation and glycocalyx shedding in Trichobilharzia regenti (Schistosomatidae) during the transformation of cercaria to schistosomulum

Nitric oxide and cytokine production by glial cells exposed in vitro to neuropathogenic schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti

The Early Worm Catches the Bird? Productivity and Patterns of Trichobilharzia szidati Cercarial Emission from Lymnaea stagnalis

Comparative Transcriptomic Exploration Reveals Unique Molecular Adaptations of Neuropathogenic Trichobilharzia to Invade and Parasitize Its Avian Definitive Host

Antibody response of definitive hosts against antigens of two life stages of the neuropathogenic schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti