The special issue "New Insight into Mycotoxins and Bacterial Toxins: Toxicity Assessment, Molecular Mechanism and Food Safety" in Food and Chemical Toxicology contains 19 articles on current hot topics in mycotoxins and bacterial toxins. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and risk assessments are reported in this issue. Molecular mechanisms of multiple mycotoxins and emerging mechanisms of toxicity are especially concerned by researchers. Moreover, mycotoxin-detoxifying substances and antimicrobial agents are also fully investigated in the context. This special issue will help to further understand the mycotoxins and bacterial toxins, casting new light for the control of food safety.

• Klíčová slova
• Bacterial toxins, Food safety, Molecular mechanism, Mycotoxin-detoxifying, Mycotoxins,
• MeSH
• bakteriální toxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• bezpečnost potravin * MeSH
• hodnocení rizik MeSH
• kontaminace potravin analýza   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   analýza   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• úvodní články MeSH
• úvodníky MeSH
• Názvy látek
• bakteriální toxiny * MeSH
• mykotoxiny * MeSH

Mycotoxins result in immune dysfunction and cause immune diseases in animals and humans. However, the mechanisms of immunotoxicity involved in mycotoxins have not been fully explored, and emerging evidence suggests that these toxins may promote their immunotoxicity via cellular senescence. Mycotoxins induce cell senescence after DNA damage, and activate signaling via the NF-κB and JNK pathways to promote the secretion of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) cytokines including IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. DNA damage can also over-activate or cleave poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), increase the expression of cell cycle inhibitory proteins p21, and p53, and induce cell cycle arrest and then senescence. These senescent cells further down-regulate proliferation-related genes and overexpress inflammatory factors resulting in chronic inflammation and eventual immune exhaustion. Here we review the underlying mechanisms by which mycotoxins trigger cell senescence and the potential roles of SASP and PARP in these pathways. This work will help to further understand the mechanisms of immunotoxicity involved in mycotoxins.

• Klíčová slova
• Immunotoxicity, Mycotoxins, PARP, SASP, Senescence,
• MeSH
• cytokiny genetika   metabolismus   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• NF-kappa B metabolismus   MeSH
• signální transdukce MeSH
• stárnutí buněk fyziologie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• cytokiny MeSH
• mykotoxiny * MeSH
• NF-kappa B MeSH

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most frequently present mycotoxin contaminant in food and feed, causing a variety of toxic effects in humans and animals. Currently, a series of mechanisms involved in DON toxicity have been identified. In addition to the activation of oxidative stress and the MAPK signaling pathway, DON can activate hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, which further regulates reactive oxygen species production and cancer cell apoptosis. Noncoding RNA and signaling pathways including Wnt/β-catenin, FOXO, and TLR4/NF-κB also participate in DON toxicity. The intestinal microbiota and the brain-gut axis play a crucial role in DON-induced growth inhibition. In view of the synergistic toxic effect of DON and other mycotoxins, strategies to detect DON and control it biologically and the development of enzymes for the biodegradation of various mycotoxins and their introduction in the market are the current and future research hotspots.

• Klíčová slova
• Wnt/β-catenin, biodegradation, brain−gut axis, deoxynivalenol, lncRNA, miRNA,
• MeSH
• apoptóza MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• signální transdukce MeSH
• trichotheceny * metabolismus   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• deoxynivalenol MeSH Prohlížeč
• mykotoxiny * MeSH
• trichotheceny * MeSH

Recently, a series of toxic mechanisms have been explored in mycotoxins. Emerging evidence show that mycotoxins may induce human neurodegenerative diseases (ND); however, this idea is still unproven. Besides to identify this hypothesis, some questions, for example, how the mycotoxins induce this disease and what the molecular mechanism is, as well as whether the brain-gut axis is involved in this context, should be answered. Very recent studies further reported an "immune evasion" mechanism in trichothecenes; moreover, hypoxia seems to play important function in this process; nevertheless, whether this "immune evasion" process is present in other mycotoxins, especially in aflatoxins, should be tested. In this work, we mainly discussed some key scientific questions that need to be answered in the toxic mechanisms of mycotoxins. We especially focused on the research questions in the key signaling pathways, balance mechanism of immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive effects, and the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis. Interesting topics such as mycotoxins and aging, cytoskeleton and immunotoxicity are also discussed. More importantly, we compile a special issue: "New insight into mycotoxins and bacterial toxins: toxicity assessment, molecular mechanism and food safety" for Food and Chemical Toxicology. Researchers are encouraged to submit their newest work to this special issue.

• Klíčová slova
• Aging, Mycotoxins, Research questions, Signaling, Toxic mechanisms,
• MeSH
• aflatoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• bezpečnost potravin MeSH
• kontaminace potravin analýza   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• trichotheceny * toxicita   MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• aflatoxiny * MeSH
• mykotoxiny * MeSH
• trichotheceny * MeSH

• MeSH
• hypoxie MeSH
• kontaminace léku MeSH
• kontaminace potravin analýza   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   analýza   MeSH
• stárnutí buněk MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• úvodníky MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mykotoxiny * MeSH

Mycotoxins are natural metabolites produced by fungi that contaminate food and feed worldwide. They can pose a threat to human and animal health, mainly causing chronic effects, e.g., immunotoxic and carcinogenic. Due to climate change, an increase in European population exposure to mycotoxins is expected to occur, raising public health concerns. This urges us to assess the current human exposure to mycotoxins in Europe to allow monitoring exposure and prevent future health impacts. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) were considered as priority substances to be studied within the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU) to generate knowledge on internal exposure and their potential health impacts. Several policy questions were addressed concerning hazard characterization, exposure and risk assessment. The present article presents the current advances attained under the HBM4EU, research needs and gaps. Overall, the knowledge on the European population risk from exposure to DON was improved by using new harmonised data and a newly derived reference value. In addition, mechanistic information on FB1 was, for the first time, organized into an adverse outcome pathway for a congenital anomaly. It is expected that this knowledge will support policy making and contribute to driving new Human Biomonitoring (HBM) studies on mycotoxin exposure in Europe.

• Klíčová slova
• HBM4EU, deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), human biomonitoring, human health, mycotoxins exposure, risk assessment,
• MeSH
• biologický monitoring MeSH
• hodnocení rizik MeSH
• houby MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• Evropa MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mykotoxiny * MeSH

Milk thistle-based dietary supplements have become increasingly popular. The extract from milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is often used for the treatment of liver diseases because of the presence of its active component, silymarin. However, the co-occurrence of toxic mycotoxins in these preparations is quite frequent as well. The objective of this study was to investigate the changes in composition of liver lipidome and other clinical characteristics of experimental mice fed by a high-fat methionine-choline deficient diet inducing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The mice were exposed to (i) silymarin, (ii) mycotoxins (trichothecenes, enniatins, beauvericin, and altertoxins) and (iii) both silymarin and mycotoxins, and results were compared to the controls. The liver tissue extracts were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Using tools of univariate and multivariate statistical analysis, we were able to identify 48 lipid species from the classes of diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols, free fatty acids, fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids and phospholipids clearly reflecting the dysregulation of lipid metabolism upon exposure to mycotoxin and/or silymarin.

• Klíčová slova
• lipidome, mass spectrometry, metabolome, mice liver, mycotoxins, silymarin,
• MeSH
• játra * metabolismus   účinky léků   MeSH
• lipidomika * MeSH
• metabolismus lipidů účinky léků   MeSH
• mykotoxiny * toxicita   MeSH
• myši inbrední C57BL MeSH
• myši MeSH
• nealkoholová steatóza jater * metabolismus   farmakoterapie   chemicky indukované   MeSH
• silymarin * farmakologie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• myši MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mykotoxiny * MeSH
• silymarin * MeSH

The special issue "Mycotoxins in Food: New Determination Methods, Toxic Mechanisms, and Control Strategies" in Food and Chemical Toxicology contains 28 articles on current hot topics in mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and fumonisins. Intestinal toxicity, immune toxicity, and oxidative stress are especially concerned by researchers in this special issue; moreover, mycotoxin detoxification and exposure and assessments in humans are reported in this context. All the new results in this special issue will help to further understand the toxic mechanisms of mycotoxins and cast new light for the control of mycotoxin contamination.

• Klíčová slova
• Control strategies, Determination, Immune toxicity, Mycotoxins, Toxic mechanisms,
• MeSH
• kontaminace potravin analýza   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny analýza   metabolismus   toxicita   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• úvodníky MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mykotoxiny MeSH

Spices are imported worldwide mainly from developing countries with tropical and/or subtropical climate. Local conditions, such as high temperature, heavy rainfall, and humidity, promote fungal growth leading to increased occurrence of mycotoxins in spices. Moreover, the lack of good agricultural practice (GAP), good manufacturing practice (GMP), and good hygienic practice (GHP) in developing countries are of great concern. This review summarizes recent data from a total of 56 original papers dealing with mycotoxins and microfungi in various spices in the last five years. A total of 38 kinds of spices, 17 mycotoxins, and 14 microfungi are discussed in the review. Worldwide, spices are rather overlooked in terms of mycotoxin regulations, which usually only cover aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA). In this paper, an extensive attention is devoted to the limits on mycotoxins in spices in the context of the European Union (EU) as well as other countries. As proven in this review, the incidence of AFs and OTA, as well as other mycotoxins, is relatively high in many spices; thus, the preparation of new regulation limits is advisable.

• Klíčová slova
• contamination, microfungi, mycotoxin, spices,
• MeSH
• aflatoxiny analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• časové faktory MeSH
• houby izolace a purifikace   MeSH
• internacionalita * zákonodárství a právo   MeSH
• kontaminace potravin zákonodárství a právo   prevence a kontrola   MeSH
• koření škodlivé účinky   analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mykotoxiny analýza   toxicita   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• aflatoxiny MeSH
• mykotoxiny MeSH

The determination of mycotoxins content in food is not sufficient for the prediction of their potential in vivo cytotoxicity because it does not reflect their bioavailability and mutual interactions within complex matrices, which may significantly alter the toxic effects. Moreover, many mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and metabolization during the intestinal absorption process. Biotransformation is predominantly the conversion of mycotoxins meditated by cytochrome P450 and other enzymes. This should transform the toxins to nontoxic metabolites but it may possibly result in unexpectedly high toxicity. Therefore, the verification of biotransformation and bioavailability provides valuable information to correctly interpret occurrence data and biomonitoring results. Among all of the methods available, the in vitro models using monolayer formed by epithelial cells from the human colon (Caco-2 cell) have been extensively used for evaluating the permeability, bioavailability, intestinal transport, and metabolism of toxic and biologically active compounds. Here, the strengths and limitations of both in vivo and in vitro techniques used to determine bioavailability are reviewed, along with current detailed data about biotransformation of mycotoxins. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism of mycotoxin effects is also discussed regarding the disorder of intestinal barrier integrity induced by mycotoxins.

• Klíčová slova
• bioavailability, biotransformation, cytochrome, intestinal transport, metabolism, mycotoxins, permeability,
• MeSH
• biologická dostupnost MeSH
• Caco-2 buňky MeSH
• epitelové buňky enzymologie   MeSH
• hodnocení rizik MeSH
• intestinální absorpce * MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• metabolická aktivace MeSH
• metabolická inaktivace MeSH
• mykotoxiny metabolismus   toxicita   MeSH
• permeabilita MeSH
• střevní sliznice enzymologie   MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mykotoxiny MeSH