Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) represent a diverse group of malignancies, both clinically and biologically, with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection playing a significant role. HPV-positive tumours generally tend to have a better prognosis and are driven by oncoproteins E6 and E7. In contrast, HPV-negative tumours typically have a worse prognosis and are often linked to mutations in tumour suppressor genes. HNSCCs exist within a complex environment known as the tumour microenvironment (TME). The TME includes tumour cells, cancer stem cells (CSCs), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), immune cells, extracellular matrix (ECM), blood vessels, and various signalling molecules. These components support tumour progression, invasion, metastasis, and resistance to treatment. Intercellular signalling within the TME-mediated by cytokines such as IL-6, TGF-b, and galectins-further promotes tumour growth and systemic effects like cachexia. Notably, the TME shares features with granulation tissue during wound healing, supporting the concept of cancer as a chronic, non-resolving wound. Effective therapy must target not only tumour cells but also the dynamic TME.

Department of Otorhinolaryngology 3FM CU and UHKV Charles University 10034 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and University Hospital Motol 15000 Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Science Charles University 12800 Prague Czech Republic

General University Hospital 12800 Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Anatomy of the 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University 12800 Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences 14200 Prague Czech Republic

Laboratory of Gene Expression Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences 25250 Vestec Czech Republic

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