Chemosensory learning is a lifelong process of acquiring perceptual expertise and semantic knowledge about chemical stimuli within the everyday environment. In the research context, it is usually simulated using olfactory training, which typically involves repeated exposure to a set of odors over a period of time. Following olfactory training, enhanced olfactory performance has been observed in adults, and similar evidence is beginning to emerge in children. However, the literature is scant concerning the effects of interventions that more closely resemble how chemosensory experience is acquired in daily life. Since children's chemosensory ecology appears to play a crucial role in olfactory development, we investigated whether engaging in activities that stimulate the chemical senses enhances olfactory performance and metacognition. To this end, we invited 20 children aged 9-11 years to participate in teacher-assisted after-school activities for 30-60 minutes a day for six weeks. During the odd weeks, the children appraised herbal and spice blends and used them to prepare dishes and make beauty products. During the even ones, they explored the city by smellwalking and created smellscape maps. The educational outcomes were evaluated using the Sniffin' Sticks test for odor identification and discrimination and the Children's Personal Significance of Olfaction. Bayesian analyses did not reveal any compelling evidence in support of the alternative hypothesis that children in the chemosensory education group outperform those in the comparison group at the post-test. Rates of reliable increase but also decrease in performance on the Sniffin' Sticks identification and discrimination tests were similar in both groups. We corroborated the previous findings regarding girls' and older children's greater proficiency at identifying odors and the female keener interest in the sense of smell. We offer several practical suggestions researchers may want to consider to tailor their research protocols to reflect more closely the broader context in which chemosensory learning takes place and better capture the nuanced outcomes of such interventions.

• MeSH
• Bayes Theorem MeSH
• Smell * physiology   MeSH
• Olfactory Perception * physiology   MeSH
• Child MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Odorants * MeSH
• Schools MeSH
• Learning physiology   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Child MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Male MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

BACKGROUND: Despite efforts to improve undergraduate clinical pharmacology & therapeutics (CPT) education, prescribing errors are still made regularly. To improve CPT education and daily prescribing, it is crucial to understand how therapeutic reasoning works. Therefore, the aim of this study was to gain insight into the therapeutic reasoning process. METHODS: A narrative literature review has been performed for literature on cognitive psychology and diagnostic and therapeutic reasoning. RESULTS: Based on these insights, The European Model of Therapeutic Reasoning has been developed, building upon earlier models and insights from cognitive psychology. In this model, it can be assumed that when a diagnosis is made, a primary, automatic response as to what to prescribe arises based on pattern recognition via therapy scripts (type 1 thinking). At some point, this response may be evaluated by the reflective mind (using metacognition). If it is found to be incorrect or incomplete, an alternative response must be formulated through a slower, more analytical and deliberative process, known as type 2 thinking. Metacognition monitors the reasoning process and helps a person to form new therapy scripts after they have chosen an effective therapy. Experienced physicians have more and richer therapy scripts, mostly based on experience and enabling conditions, instead of textbook knowledge, and therefore their type 1 response is more often correct. CONCLUSION: Because of the important role of metacognition in therapeutic reasoning, more attention should be paid to metacognition in CPT education. Both trainees and teachers should be aware of the possibility to monitor and influence these cognitive processes. Further research is required to investigate the applicability of these insights and the adaptability of educational approaches to therapeutic reasoning.

• MeSH
• Pharmacology, Clinical education   MeSH
• Clinical Reasoning * MeSH
• Clinical Competence MeSH
• Drug Prescriptions standards   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Medication Errors prevention & control   MeSH
• Metacognition MeSH
• Education, Medical, Undergraduate MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

In this article we explore Gross’ (1998) Process Model of Emotion Regulation and seek to discover how it may inform school staff about emotional regulation and children with autism. This small-scale study, which was conducted as part of an undergraduate degree dissertation, centres on the staff in a special school who support three children with autism of primary school age. Data comprises interviews and questionnaires to staff and observations of the emotion regulation approaches the adults use and the children’s self-regulation strategies they developed. As we seek insight into Staff members’ implementation of emotion regulation strategies, we also aim to determine the children’s developmental stages of self-regulation and if there are any such stages, therefore, we not only seek to offer potential reasons for why emotional dysregulation occurs in the children but put forward alternative suggestions of strategies that potentially enable the children’s metacognition development. We also aim to determine a clear structure for increased staff understanding. Our findings show that adults use supportive child centred strategies unique to each child. These support strategies, however, also reveal three staff traits which can be learned, namely staff experience, knowledge of the child and knowledge of evidenced based regulation strategies. Furthermore, our findings emphasise the benefits of a good in-school support system for staff that includes peer observations, discussions about the children amongst staff members, and staff taking an objective stance about the children and emotional regulation support in the classroom. Our recommendations centre on a deeper understanding of staff needs for collegiality and increased staff knowledge and practice of regulatory processes. Overall, we find that Gross’ model is a useful tool to understand emotional regulation and children with autism at the school.

Metacognition is a part of the models of self-regulated learning. The consideration of a broader context resonates with a social cognitive perspective approach to learning which dominates the educational academic field with the theory of self-regulated learning. Metacognition is considered a crucial factor influencing mathematics achievement. Furthermore, the affective field including pupils' self-efficacy, interest and motivation are the phenomena involved in mathematical problem-solving. On the other hand, metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulations are not a regular part of mathematics education in the Czech Republic. The main aim of this study was to investigate the relation between pupils' attitude toward mathematics; metacognitive knowledge; self-efficacy and motivation; metacognitive monitoring; and their achievement in solving mathematical problems. All together 1,133 students of Grade 5 from four types of Czech schools participated in the study. There were traditional schools; schools teaching mathematics by genetic constructivism, i.e., Hejný's method; Montessori schools; and Dalton schools were involved. The assessed variables, namely relation to mathematics; metacognitive knowledge; self-efficacy and motivation; metacognitive monitoring; and mathematical achievement were used as an input to regression analysis. Item-response theory was used for assessing the performance of the students and demands of the tasks. The metacognitive monitoring was detected as the most significant predictor of mathematics achievement for higher- and lower-performing students as well as for the item with high and low demands. The study reveals how the different mathematics curricula (un)support the metacognitive processes involved in mathematical problem-solving. The information allows teachers to spend sufficient time with particular types of mathematics problems whose solutions is determined by activation of metacognitive processes. This demonstrates the importance of including the activities for development of metacognitive monitoring in mathematics education.

• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all aspects of the educational system, including students' learning styles, which are heavily dependent on self-regulated studying strategies and motivation. The purpose of this study was to discover whether Central European students, in this case the Slovak and Czech students, were able to perform self-regulated learning during online learning under the COVID-19 pandemic to achieve their learning goals and improve academic performance, as well as to propose a few practical recommendations how to develop and maintain students' self-regulation learning in this new online environment. The methodology was based on a questionnaire survey conducted among 268 students at two Central European universities in February and March 2021. The findings indicate that Central European students seemed to be able to perform their online self-study, especially in regard to personal competencies, meaningfulness and motivation. They reported higher awareness of their strengths and weaknesses in learning, time management, and/or the usefulness of making an effort to study. However, the findings reveal an urgent need for more work to be done in the area of metacognitive strategies, such as reflective and critical thinking, analyzing and evaluating. In this respect, the teacher's role is replaceable since s/he serves as a facilitator and promotes these metacognitive strategies by providing students with constructive feedback, monitoring their learning, reviewing their progress, and/or providing opportunities to reflect on their learning. There were not any striking differences between the Czech and Slovak students. Nevertheless, Slovak students (females in particular) seemed to be more self-disciplined and goal-oriented in their learning.

• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

In this paper, we inquire into possible differences between children with exceptionally high intellectual abilities and their average peers as regards metacognitive monitoring and related metacognitive strategies. The question whether gifted children surpass their typically developing peers not only in the intellectual abilities, but also in their level of metacognitive skills, has not been convincingly answered so far. We sought to examine the indicators of metacognitive behavior by means of eye-tracking technology and to compare these findings with the participants' subjective confidence ratings. Eye-movement data of gifted and average students attending final grades of primary school (4th and 5th grades) were recorded while they dealt with a deductive reasoning task, and four metrics supposed to bear on metacognitive skills, namely the overall trial duration, mean fixation duration, number of regressions and normalized gaze transition entropy, were analyzed. No significant differences between gifted and average children were found in the normalized gaze transition entropy, in mean fixation duration, nor - after controlling for the trial duration - in number of regressions. Both groups of children differed in the time devoted to solving the task. Both groups significantly differed in the association between time devoted to the task and the participants' subjective confidence rating, where only the gifted children tended to devote more time when they felt less confident. Several implications of these findings are discussed.

• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Preschool children are generally inaccurate at evaluating past and predicting future performance. The present study examines the effect of performance feedback on the accuracy of preschoolers' predictive judgments and tests whether performance feedback acts as an anchor for postdictive judgments. In Experiment 1, preschool children (n = 40) solved number patterns, and in Experiment 2 they solved object patterns (n = 59). The results in both experiments revealed, firstly, that children receiving performance feedback made more accurate predictive judgments and lowered their certainty after their incorrect answer. Secondly, the children relied on performance feedback more than on actual task experience when making postdictive judgments, indicating that performance feedback was used as an anchor for subsequent postdictive judgments.

• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Úvod: Porucha náhledu je komplexní kognitivně behaviorální porucha, která je typická u pacientů po získaném poškození mozku. Deficit náhledu u těchto pacientů způsobuje sníženou motivaci k rehabilitaci nebo nerealistická očekávání. Vede k horším výsledkům v terapii a k problémům zapojit se do aktivit v širší komunitě a do zaměstnání. Cíl: Cílem přehledové studie je popsat definice a teoretické modely náhledu a shrnout závěry výzkumů ke způsobu hodnocení náhledu u dospělých pacientů po získaném poškození mozku za posledních 15 let. Metodika: Rešerše s prvky systematizace za použití metodiky PRISMA. Vyhledávání bylo provedeno v bibliografických a multioborových elektronických databázích (Web of Science, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EBSCO, ScienceDirect, Scopus). Do práce jsou začleněny studie publikované od roku 2005 do roku 2020 včetně. Výsledky: Celkem bylo vyhledáno 544 zdrojů. Do finální rešerše bylo zařazeno 14 studií, které spadají do jedné ze tří kategorií: definice náhledu, modely náhledu a hodnocení náhledu. Závěr: Z rešerše vyplývá, že náhled je komplexní pojem, který je součástí metakognice. Jeho definice je nejednotná. Nejčastěji je náhled konceptualizován jako schopnost objektivního vnímání a posouzení vlastní situace při zachování určité subjektivity v porozumění její důležitosti pro člověka. Pouze dva z vyhledaných objektivních hodnocení náhledu hodnotí všechny jeho úrovně.

Introduction: Self-awareness deficit is a complex cognitive-behavioural disorder that is typical of patients after acquired brain injury. Deficiency of self-awareness in these patients causes reduced motivation for rehabilitation or unrealistic expectations. It leads to poorer results in therapy and problems in engaging in activities in the wider community and in employment. Aim: The aim of this review study is to describe the definitions and theoretical models of self-awareness and to summarize the conclusions of research on how to assess self-awareness in adult patients after acquired brain injury in the last 15 years. Methods: Review with elements of systematization using PRISMA methodology. The search was performed in bibliographic and multidisciplinary electronic databases (Web of Science, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EBSCO, ScienceDirect, Scopus). The work includes studies published from 2005 to 2020 inclusive. Results: A total of 544 sources were found. The final research included 14 studies that fall into one of three categories: definition of self-awareness, self-awareness models, and self-awareness assessment. Conclusions: The research shows that self-awareness is a complex concept that is part of metacognition. Its definition is inconsistent. Most often, self-awareness is conceptualized as the ability to objectively perceive and assess one's own situation while maintaining a certain subjectivity in understanding its importance to a person. Only two of the sought-after objective self-awareness assessments assess all its levels.

• Keywords
• poruchy náhledu, získané poškození mozku,
• MeSH
• Agnosia MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Meta-Analysis as Topic MeSH
• Brain Injuries * psychology   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH

Cíle. Cílem studie bylo zjistit metakognitivní projevy v různých fázích řešení problémů a prozkoumat vývojové a sociálně-vzdělávací rozdíly v metakognici u předškolních dětí vzhledem k pohlaví dětí, věku, sociálně ekonomickému statutu rodiny, vzdělání rodičů a typu předškolní instituce. Soubor. Soubor zahrnoval 418 předškolních dětí ve věku 3 až 6 let. Výzkum proběhl v předškolních institucích. Podmínky byly standardizovány a řízeny výzkumníky – před každým úkolem dal výzkumník dětem jasnou instrukci. Hypotézy. Autoři předpokládali, že předškolní děti jsou schopny dát najevo verbální i neverbální ukazatele metakognice a že tyto projevy se vztahují k věku a sociálně-vzdělávacím faktorům, jako jsou sociálně ekonomický status rodiny, vzdělání rodičů a typ předškolní instituce. Statistická analýza. Deskriptivní statistiky byly použity ke zjištění přítomnosti metakognitivních projevů. Dvoufaktorová ANO VA byla aplikována pro zjištění rodových a věkových rozdílů. Post-hoc analýza (GLM) byla provedena pro otestování vlivu sociálně-vzdělávacích rozdílů. Výsledky. Výsledky ukázaly, že předškolní děti používají verbální i neverbální metakognitivní odpovědi v různých fázích řešení problémů. Starší děti dávaly najevo více indikátorů metakognice. Sociálně ekonomický status rodiny a vzdělání rodičů se také projevily jako signifikantní faktory, které přispívají k rozdílům v metakognitivních projevech u předškolních dětí. Omezení studie. Metakognice byla zjišťována bez testování strategií, které by ji mohly zlepšit, takže by bylo užitečné, kdyby budoucí výzkumy zjišťovaly vliv těchto strategií na vývoj metakognice u předškolních dětí.

Objectives. The aim of this study was to determine presence of metacognitive manifestations in the different phases of problem solving and to examine developmental and socio-educational differences in metacognition in preschoolers, with respect to children's gender, age, socioeconomic status of the family, parent's education and type of preschool institution. Sample and settings. The sample included 418 preschool children, aged 3-6 years. Research was conducted in preschool institutions. The conditions were standardized and controlled by researchers – the researcher gave clear instruction to children before each task. Hypotheses. It was assumed that preschool children are able to manifest verbal and nonverbal metacognition indicators and that these manifestations are related to children's age and socio- educational factors, such as socio-economic status of the family, parent's education and type of preschool institution. Statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to determine presence of metacognitive manifestations. Two-factorial ANO VA was applied to examine gender and age differences. The post-hoc analysis (GLM) was conducted to test influence of socio-educational factors. Results. It is showed that preschoolers use verbal and non-verbal metacognitive responses in different phases of problem solving. Older children manifested more indicators of metacognition. Also, socio-economic status of the family and parent's education showed as significant factors which contribute to differences in metacognitive manifestations in preschoolers. Study limitations. Metacognition was measured without testing strategies which could enhance it, so future research would test influence of these strategies on development of metacognition in preschoolers.

• MeSH
• Child MeSH
• Emotional Regulation MeSH
• Factor Analysis, Statistical MeSH
• Gender Identity MeSH
• Checklist MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Metacognition * MeSH
• Child, Preschool * MeSH
• Psychological Tests MeSH
• Problem Solving MeSH
• Schools, Nursery MeSH
• Socioeconomic Factors MeSH
• Age Factors MeSH
• Child Development MeSH
• Check Tag
• Child MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Child, Preschool * MeSH

Ciele. cieľom štúdie je sledovanie porozume-nia textu a jeho metakognitívneho monitoringu u detí predškolského veku v závislosti od socio-kultúrnych podmienok rodinného prostredia, v porovnaní s klasickými prediktormi gramot-nosti zastúpenými niekoľkými ukazovateľmi fonematického uvedomovania. Výskumná vzorka. skupina 327 detí predškol-ského veku z bežných rodín sa porovnávala so skupinou 55 detí z rodín s nízkym sociálno-eko-nomickým statusom. Hypotéza. Predpokladalo sa, že deti z nízkopríj-mových rodín budú v porovnaní s referenčnou skupinou dosahovať horšie výsledky osobitne v ukazovateľoch gramotnosti vyžadujúcich bo-haté skúsenosti s čítaním, t.j. porozumení textu a jeho metakognitívneho monitoringu. Štatistické analýzy. rozdiely medzi skupinami boli testované t-testom pre nezávislé výbery, na analýzu presnosti monitoringu správnych a nesprávnych odpovedí bol použitý chí-kvad-rát test a vzťah medzi presnosťou monitoringu a výkonom v dvoch úlohách na porozumenie textu sa testoval použitím 2-faktorovej AnoVA. Výsledky. Výsledky ukázali, že deti z nízko-príjmových rodín podávali signifikantne nižšie celkové výkony vo všetkých ukazovateľoch gramotnosti, pričom rozdiely medzi skupinami záviseli aj od charakteru a náročnosti úlohy. V metakognitívnom monitoringu vykazovali navyše štatisticky významne vyššiu tendenciu k podceňovaniu správnych výkonov, čo pouka-zuje na znížené sebahodnotenie týchto detí. Limity štúdie. Hlavným obmedzením štúdie je nedostatok informácií o každodenných čitateľ-ských aktivitách v rodinách sledovaných detí.

Objectives: The aim of the study is to investigate reading comprehension and metacomprehension as they occur in preschool age in relation to sociocultural environment of the family, in comparison with traditional predictors of beginning reading acquisition represented by several indicators of phonological awareness. Participants and setting: A group of 327 preschool-age children from middle-SES families and 55 children from low-SES families was compared. Hypotheses: We assumed that children from low-SES families would perform worse than children from middle-SES families namely in literacy tasks requiring specific social experience with reading, i.e. text comprehension and metacognitive monitoring. Statistical analysis: The differences between the groups were tested using independent samples t-tests, monitoring accuracy on the correct and incorrect answers using the Chi-Squared test, and the relationship between monitoring accuracy and performance in the two text comprehension tasks using 2-way ANOVA. Results: We have found that children from low-SES families demonstrated significantly lower overall performance in all literacy tasks, however, the group differences in text comprehension varied in relation to the task difficulty (complexity and the level of comprehension). Moreover, in metacognitive monitoring, children from low-SES families showed significantly higher tendency to underestimate their correct performance, indicating lower self-esteem. Study limitations: The main limitation of the study was the lack of information about everyday reading behaviour of children except the one exhibited in our tests. In the study that will follow we plan to employ the questionnaire aimed specifically on assessment of usual reading behaviour of both, children and parents.