OBJECTIVE: To assess modelled facial development of infants with unilateral cleft lip (CL) and cleft lip and palate (UCLP) compared to controls up to two years of age. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 209 facial images of children (CL: n = 37; UCLP: n = 39; controls: n = 137) were obtained in four age categories (T0 = 0.2-0.5; T1 = 0.6-1.0; T2 = 1.1-1.5; T3 = 1.6-2.0 years) and were evaluated using stereophotogrammetry and geometric morphometry. All patients underwent lip surgery before T0, patients with UCLP underwent palatoplasty (T0, T1 before palatoplasty; T2, T3 after palatoplasty). RESULTS: In patients with CL, the forehead was significantly retracted (p ≤ 0.001), while the supraorbital and ocular regions were prominent (p ≤ 0.001). The oronasal region appeared convex (p ≤ 0.001). The lower lip and chin were non-significantly protruded. In patients with UCLP, a significantly retracted forehead and prominent supraorbital region were apparent (p ≤ 0.001). A retrusive oronasal region (p ≤ 0.001) was observed in the middle face. The chin was anteriorly protruded (p ≤ 0.01). No progression of deviations was found with increasing age. After the first year, a slight improvement in the morphological features became apparent. The shape variability of the clefts and controls overlapped, suggesting a comparable modelled facial development. CONCLUSIONS: The facial morphology of individuals with cleft was comparable to the norm. Shape deviation was apparent in the oronasal region, forehead, and chin, which minimised with increasing age even in complete clefts.

• MeSH
• Photogrammetry * methods   MeSH
• Cephalometry MeSH
• Infant MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Maxillofacial Development MeSH
• Face anatomy & histology   abnormalities   MeSH
• Child, Preschool MeSH
• Cross-Sectional Studies MeSH
• Cleft Palate * surgery   diagnostic imaging   pathology   MeSH
• Cleft Lip * surgery   pathology   MeSH
• Case-Control Studies MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Infant MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Male MeSH
• Child, Preschool MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Úvod a cíl: Lidský obličej slouží jako zdroj mnoha informací. Znalost jeho morfologie je podstatná pro řadu biomedicínských oborů. Studium obličeje však přináší velké množství obtíží. Problematická je jeho velká tvarová variabilita a také to, že jednotlivé části rostou rozdílnou rychlostí. Účelem tohoto přehledového článku je představit metody zabývající se výzkumem morfologie obličeje a popsat jejich výhody a nevýhody. Metody: Mezi tradiční metody patří antropometrie, která se zabývá měřením velikosti, hmotnosti a proporcí lidského těla. Tento způsob výzkumu je sice levný a trojdimenzionální, ale je časově velmi náročný. V praxi se pro analýzu obličejových struktur nejčastěji používají kefalometrie a klasické dvojdimenzionální fotografi e. Mezi výhody těchto dvojdimenzionálních zobrazovacích metod patří jejich rychlé zhotovení, možnost archivace získaných dat a nízká cena. V poslední době se do popředí zájmu mnoha výzkumů dostávají trojdimenzionální zobrazovací systémy. Nacházejí své uplatnění nejen v ortodoncii, ale také v maxilofaciální chirurgii. Řadíme mezi ně výpočetní tomografi i, výpočetní tomografi i kuželovým svazkem, laserové a optické skenery. První dvě zmiňované techniky nejsou kvůli expozici radiačnímu záření, vysoké ceně a slabému rozlišení obličejových obrysů pro výzkum morfologie obličeje vhodné. Laserové skenery využívají laserového paprsku (bodového nebo v podobě proužku), který přechází přes povrch obličeje pacienta a vytváří velmi přesný trojdimenzionální model. Čas na jeho zhotovení je relativně dlouhý (až 20 sekund). Optické skenery dělíme podle principu snímání na dvě skupiny: skenery využívající strukturované světlo a skenery fungující na principu stereofotogrammetrie (pasivní nebo aktivní). Získané modely detailně popisují povrchové struktury s realistickým znázorněním textury a barvy kůže. Závěr: Pro mnoho oborů (antropologie, genetika, ortodoncie, chirurgie aj.) se trojdimenzionální fotografi e stávají stále důležitějšími. Jejich přesnost a možnost využití v klinické praxi již byly ověřeny nezávislými studiemi.

Introduction and aim of study: The human face serves as a source of a great deal of information. Knowledge of its morphology is essential for many biomedical specializations. The study of the face brings many diffi culties. Problematic is the high facial shape variability as well as the fact that the individual parts grow with diff erent speed. The purpose of this review of existing literature is to present research methods of the facial morphology and describe their advantages and disadvantages. Methods: Anthropometry belongs to traditional research methods. It deals with the measuring of size, weight and proportions of the human body. Although this way of research is inexpensive and three-dimensional, it is very time-consuming. In clinical practice, cephalometry and classical two-dimensional photographs are the most common methods used for facial structures analysis. The advantages of these two-dimensional imaging methods are a quick acquisition, a possibility of the obtained data storage and low cost. Recently, there has been a growing interest of many studies in three-dimensional imaging systems. These systems have been found useful not only in orthodontics but also in maxillofacial surgery. Computed tomography, cone-beam computed tomography, laser and optical scanners belong to these. The fi rst two mentioned techniques are not suitable for research of facial morphology on account of exposure to radiation, high cost and low resolution of facial contours. Laser scanners use laser beam (point or stripe) that goes over the patient’s face and creates a very accurate three- -dimensional model. The time for its acquisition is relatively long (up to 20 seconds). Optical scanners can be divided into two groups according to the scanning principle: anascanners using structured light and scanners using stereo photogrammetry (passive or active). The obtained models describe surface structures in detail with a realistic picture of a texture and skin colour. Conclusion: Three-dimensional photographs are constantly becoming more important in many fields (anthropology, genetics, orthodontics, surgery...). Their accuracy and potential in clinical practice have already been verified in independent studies.

• Keywords
• optické skenery, laserové skenery, morfologie obličeje,
• MeSH
• Anthropometry methods   MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Cephalometry methods   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Face * anatomy & histology   diagnostic imaging   MeSH
• Cone-Beam Computed Tomography methods   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Review MeSH

OBJECTIVES: The head constitutes 6% of the total body weight, which is linked to the cervical spine and all other joints through the kinematic chain by various muscles. The forward head posture is one of the most common postural disorders and seems to be especially dangerous. The goal of the work was to assess the impact of 4 weeks of training neck and nape muscles on the head posture. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The subjects were 20 participants, who performed neck exercises for 20 days. The head posture in a sagittal and frontal plane was assessed photogrammetrically twice: before and after the exercises. The following have been used for the assessment: craniovertebral (CV) angle, head tilt angle (HT), and frontal head tilt angle (FHT). RESULTS: After a 20-day program of neck and nape exercises the values of specific angles were compared. The results indicated significant changes in the head posture. In the sagittal plane: the average value of the CV angle before the training was 47.17°, and 50.82° after the training; the average value of the HT angle before the exercises was at 20.99°, and 24.31° after. In the frontal plane the average value of the FHT angle before the exercises was at 2.71°, and after 20 days of training the average value of this angle decreased to 2°. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that a short, home-based targeted exercise program can improve head posture. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2019;32(1):43-51.

• MeSH
• Adult MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Head diagnostic imaging   physiopathology   MeSH
• Neck diagnostic imaging   physiopathology   MeSH
• Middle Aged MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Occupational Diseases rehabilitation   MeSH
• Posture * MeSH
• Exercise Therapy methods   MeSH
• Public Sector MeSH
• Check Tag
• Adult MeSH
• Middle Aged MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Geographicals
• Poland MeSH

Autoři v práci prezentují výsledky pracovní skupiny pacientů se včasnějším zatěžováním poraněné patní kosti ošetřené osteosyntézou LCP dlahou a C-nailem ve srovnání s kontrolní skupinou se standardním postupem zatěžování poraněné končetiny po osteosyntéze. Cíl: Zhodnocení vhodnosti časnějšího zatěžování končetiny se zlomeninou patní kosti ošetřenou stabilní osteosyntézou s doporučením metodiky pooperační péče o tyto pacienty. Materiál a metodika: Pracovní a kontrolní skupinu pacientů jsme sledovali klinicky a pomocí optoelek­tronické stereofotogrammetrie a hodnotili pomocí UZ vyšetření a spektrální analýzy. Do pracovní skupiny se nám podařilo zařadit 18 pacientů a do kontrolní šest pacientů ošetřených 11x dlahou a 13x hřebem. Výsledky: Po zhodnocení UZ vyšetření a části pacientů po stránce spektrální analýzy vykazují trendy v grafech strmější charakter růstu pro pracovní skupinu s časnějším zatěžováním než pro kontrolní skupinu s pozdějším zatěžováním poraněné končetiny. Závěr: Na menším souboru pacientů se nám podařilo prokázat, že pro hojení zlomenin patní kosti po stabilní osteosyntéze je vhodnější dřívější zátěžování poraněné končetiny postupně plnou váhou těla.

The authors present the results of a workgroup of patients with earlier burden of injured heel bone treated with osteosynthesis by LCP plate and C-nail compared to the control group with standard procedure of injured extremity loading after osteosynthesis. Goal: To assess the suitability of earlier loading of extremity with calcaneous bone fracture treated with stable osteosynthesis with recommendations of postoperative care for these patients. Material and methodology: The working and the control group of patients were monitored clinically and by optoelectronic stereophotogrammetry and evaluated by ultrasound examination and spectral analysis. We managed to include 18 patients in the working group and 6 patients in the control 6 patients treated 11 times by means of a plate and 13 times with a nail. Results: After evaluation of ultrasound examination and a part of patients in terms of spectral analysis, the trends in graphs show a steeper growth pattern for the working group with earlier loading than for control group with later loading of the injured extremity. Conclusion: In a smaller group of patients, we have demonstrated that earlier loading of an injured extremity with full body weight is more appropriate for the process of healing of calcaneus fractures after stable osteosynthesis.

• MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Fractures, Bone therapy   MeSH
• Fracture Healing * MeSH
• Fracture Fixation, Intramedullary MeSH
• Control Groups MeSH
• Bony Callus MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Foot Orthoses MeSH
• Calcaneus * injuries   MeSH
• Tomography, X-Ray Computed methods   MeSH
• Postoperative Care MeSH
• Foot Injuries complications   therapy   MeSH
• Spectrum Analysis methods   MeSH
• Physical Therapy Modalities MeSH
• Physical Exertion * MeSH
• Ultrasonography, Doppler methods   MeSH
• Fracture Fixation, Internal MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Evaluation Study MeSH
• Observational Study MeSH

Autoři v práci prezentují výsledky pracovní skupiny pacientů se včasnějším zatěžováním poraněné patní kosti ošetřené osteosyntézou LCP dlahou a C-nailem ve srovnání s kontrolní skupinou se standardním postupem zatěžování poraněné končetiny po osteosyntéze. Cíl: Zhodnocení vhodnosti časnějšího zatěžování končetiny se zlomeninou patní kosti ošetřenou stabilní osteosyntézou s doporučením metodiky pooperační péče o tyto pacienty. Materiál a metodika: Pracovní a kontrolní skupinu pacientů jsme sledovali klinicky a pomocí optoelek­tronické stereofotogrammetrie a hodnotili pomocí UZ vyšetření a spektrální analýzy. Do pracovní skupiny se nám podařilo zařadit 18 pacientů a do kontrolní šest pacientů ošetřených 11x dlahou a 13x hřebem. Výsledky: Po zhodnocení UZ vyšetření a části pacientů po stránce spektrální analýzy vykazují trendy v grafech strmější charakter růstu pro pracovní skupinu s časnějším zatěžováním než pro kontrolní skupinu s pozdějším zatěžováním poraněné končetiny. Závěr: Na menším souboru pacientů se nám podařilo prokázat, že pro hojení zlomenin patní kosti po stabilní osteosyntéze je vhodnější dřívější zátěžování poraněné končetiny postupně plnou váhou těla.

The authors present the results of a workgroup of patients with earlier burden of injured heel bone treated with osteosynthesis by LCP plate and C-nail compared to the control group with standard procedure of injured extremity loading after osteosynthesis. Goal: To assess the suitability of earlier loading of extremity with calcaneous bone fracture treated with stable osteosynthesis with recommendations of postoperative care for these patients. Material and methodology: The working and the control group of patients were monitored clinically and by optoelectronic stereophotogrammetry and evaluated by ultrasound examination and spectral analysis. We managed to include 18 patients in the working group and 6 patients in the control 6 patients treated 11 times by means of a plate and 13 times with a nail. Results: After evaluation of ultrasound examination and a part of patients in terms of spectral analysis, the trends in graphs show a steeper growth pattern for the working group with earlier loading than for control group with later loading of the injured extremity. Conclusion: In a smaller group of patients, we have demonstrated that earlier loading of an injured extremity with full body weight is more appropriate for the process of healing of calcaneus fractures after stable osteosynthesis.

• MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Fractures, Bone therapy   MeSH
• Fracture Healing * MeSH
• Fracture Fixation, Intramedullary MeSH
• Control Groups MeSH
• Bony Callus MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Foot Orthoses MeSH
• Calcaneus * injuries   MeSH
• Tomography, X-Ray Computed methods   MeSH
• Postoperative Care MeSH
• Foot Injuries complications   therapy   MeSH
• Spectrum Analysis methods   MeSH
• Physical Therapy Modalities MeSH
• Physical Exertion * MeSH
• Ultrasonography, Doppler methods   MeSH
• Fracture Fixation, Internal MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Evaluation Study MeSH
• Observational Study MeSH

OBJECTIVE: Facial attractiveness is an important factor in our social interactions. It is still not entirely clear which factors influence the attractiveness of a face and facial asymmetry appears to play a certain role. The aim of the present study was to assess the association between facial attractiveness and regional facial asymmetries evaluated on three-dimensional (3D) images. METHODS: 3D facial images of 59 (23 male, 36 female) young adult patients (age 16-25 years) before orthodontic treatment were evaluated for asymmetry. The same 3D images were presented to 12 lay judges who rated the attractiveness of each subject on a 100mm visual analogue scale. Reliability of the method was assessed with Bland-Altman plots and Cronbach's alpha coefficient. RESULTS: All subjects showed a certain amount of asymmetry in all regions of the face; most asymmetry was found in the chin and cheek areas and less in the lip, nose and forehead areas. No statistically significant differences in regional facial asymmetries were found between male and female subjects (P > 0.05). Regression analyses demonstrated that the judgement of facial attractiveness was not influenced by absolute regional facial asymmetries when gender, facial width-to-height ratio and type of malocclusion were controlled (P > 0.05). LIMITATIONS: A potential limitation of the study could be that other biologic and cultural factors influencing the perception of facial attractiveness were not controlled for. CONCLUSIONS: A small amount of asymmetry was present in all subjects assessed in this study, and asymmetry of this magnitude may not influence the assessment of facial attractiveness.

• MeSH
• Anatomic Landmarks MeSH
• Facial Asymmetry pathology   psychology   MeSH
• Chin pathology   MeSH
• Forehead pathology   MeSH
• Adult MeSH
• Esthetics, Dental * MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Malocclusion pathology   MeSH
• Judgment MeSH
• Adolescent MeSH
• Young Adult MeSH
• Nose pathology   MeSH
• Face pathology   MeSH
• Attitude to Health MeSH
• Reproducibility of Results MeSH
• Cheek pathology   MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional methods   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Adult MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Adolescent MeSH
• Young Adult MeSH
• Male MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Creating digital replicas of unique biological findings or archeological artifacts has become a desirable task, which enables to spare original integrity and enhance accessibility of valuable objects to a wide range of experts as well as public. In recent years, specialized scanning devices have been challenged by performance of photogrammetry software tools capable of processing unstructured image sets and providing three-dimensional digital models in return. Simplicity, portability and affordability predetermine photogrammetry to be the method of choice if three-dimensional documentation is to be conducted at remote facilities and outdoor locations. The present paper tests technical limitations of two 3D documentation techniques – close range photogrammetry carried out in Agisoft PhotoScan software and laser scanning conducted with MicroScribe/MicroScan scanning unit while documenting pelvic bones and sacra from the Upper Paleolithic triple burial of Dolní Věstonice, Czech Republic. For photogrammetry, two different approaches to generate closed textured 3D models were confronted – alignment of partial polygonal meshes and joint processing of multiple image sets. Our results showed that photogrammetry provided high-resolution 3D models appended by photorealistic texture. In terms of depicted details, the photogrammetry-generated models were comparable to those of laser scanning. However, the robust performance of the employed algorithm was achieved at the expense of extensive time and labor demands, which for many experts may be difficult to justify. In conclusion, photogrammetry should be considered a suitable substitute for surface scanners only if conducted for occasional and/or out-of-lab documentation tasks.

• MeSH
• Photogrammetry * methods   instrumentation   MeSH
• Lasers MeSH
• Pelvic Bones MeSH
• Body Remains MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional methods   instrumentation   MeSH
• Publication type
• Comparative Study MeSH
• Geographicals
• Czech Republic MeSH

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Judgement of nasolabial aesthetics in cleft lip and palate (CLP) is a vital component of assessment of treatment outcome. It is usually performed based on two-dimensional (2D) facial photographs. An increasing use of three-dimensional (3D) imaging warrants an assessment if 3D images can substitute 2D photographs during aesthetic evaluation. The aim of this study was to compare reliability of rating nasolabial appearance on 3D images and standard 2D photographs in prepubertal children. METHODS: Forty subjects (age: 8.8-12) with unilateral CLP treated according to a standardized protocol, who had 2D and 3D facial images were selected. Eight lay raters assessed nasal form, nasal deviation, vermilion border, and nasolabial profile on cropped 2D and 3D images using a 100-mm visual analogue scale (VAS). Additionally, raters answer two questions: 1. Do 2D or 3D images provide more information on nasolabial aesthetics? and 2. Is aesthetic evaluation easier on 2D or 3D images? RESULTS: Intrarater agreement demonstrated a better reliability of ratings performed on 3D images than 2D images (correlation coefficients for 3D images ranged from 0.733 to 0.857; for 2D images from 0.151 to 0.611). The mean scores showed, however, no difference between 2D and 3D formats (>0.05). 3D images were regarded more informative than 2D images (P = 0.001) but probably more difficult to evaluate (P = 0.06). LIMITATIONS: Basal view of the nose was not assessed. CONCLUSIONS: 3D images seem better than 2D images for rating nasolabial aesthetics but raters should familiarize themselves with them prior to rating.

• MeSH
• Child MeSH
• Adult MeSH
• Esthetics MeSH
• Photography methods   MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Nose anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Image Processing, Computer-Assisted methods   MeSH
• Reproducibility of Results MeSH
• Lip anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Cleft Palate pathology   surgery   MeSH
• Cleft Lip pathology   surgery   MeSH
• Visual Analog Scale MeSH
• Treatment Outcome MeSH
• Plastic Surgery Procedures methods   MeSH
• Nose Deformities, Acquired pathology   MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional methods   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Child MeSH
• Adult MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Comparative Study MeSH

Předmět sdělení: V posledních letech dochází k rozvoji a pronikání 3D technologií do mnoha medicínských oborů. Stomatologie, ortodoncie a čelistní chirurgie nejsou výjimkou. Prověřené metody plánování ortognátních operací, jako jsou operace na sádrových modelech či 2D simulace, jsou považovány za „zlatý standard“ a vedou k osvědčeným výsledkům. Ovšem i tyto metody mají své hranice a omezení. Trojrozměrné (3D) prostředí přináší do plánování další, třetí rozměr, čímž se obraz přibližuje reálnému světu. To nám rozšiřuje možnosti např. při diagnostice některých asymetrií a umožňuje přesnější plánování ortognátních operací. Využívá přitom moderních 3D zobrazovacích metod, jako jsou Cone Beam CT, stereofotogrammetrie či digitální modely zubních oblouků. Vzájemnou registrací (překrytím) zhotovených 3D snímků (3D modelů) vznikne virtuální 3D model pacienta. Tento model dokonale zobrazuje obličejový skelet (Cone Beam CT), měkké tkáně obličeje (stereofotogrammetrický snímek) a zubní oblouky (digitální modely), někdy také označovaný jako tzv. triáda. Ve specializovaných počítačových programech, jako je např. Dolphin Imaging 3D 11.7? (Dolphin Imaging, Chatsworth, USA), provedeme na tomto virtuálním modelu 3D simulaci ortognátní operace. Cílem tohoto článku je prezentovat tuto relativně novou metodu plánování ortognátních operací a zároveň i 3D zobrazovací metody, které jsou k 3D plánování využívány a dále popsat jednotlivé kroky při vlastní 3D simulaci ortognátní operace v počítačovém programu Dolphin Imaging 3D?. Klíčová slova: ortognátní chirurgie – ortodoncie – 3D simulace – Cone Beam CT – obličejový sken – digitální ortodontické modely

AIM: Recently there has been a great progress in three-dimensional (3D) technologies in field of medicine. Dentistry and maxillofacial surgery haven't been exceptions. Methods such as model surgery or cephalometric methods of prediction (2D prediction) including video imaging are considered as “gold standards” in orthognathic surgery. However, these techniques, despite being routine part of the diagnosis and treatment planning process, have their limitations. 3D environment adds the third dimension to planning, which moves planning closer to reality and gives us more information for diagnosing a wider range of dentofacial anomalies. Furthermore, 3D planning increases accuracy of overall orthognatic planning by using modern 3D imaging methods, such as Cone Beam CT, stereophotogrammetry or digital models of dental arches. By merging these 3D images is created virtual model of patient head, described by some authors as triad. It depicts facial skeleton (Cone Beam CT), facial soft tissues (stereophotogrammetry scan) and dental arches (digital models) in the most suitable way. The next step is to perform 3D simulation on this virtual model by using a planning software, e.g. Dolphin imaging 3D?. The aim of this article is to present relatively new method of orthognatic surgery planning and brings some information about 3D imaging technologies, which are essential as part of that process. Simultaneously fundamental steps (procedures) in orthognatic surgery 3D simulation using program Dolphin Imaging 3D? process are described. Keywords: orthognatic surgery, orthodontics – Cone-Beam Computed Tomography – facial scan – digital dental models/casts

• MeSH
• Esthetics, Dental MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Face MeSH
• Orthognathic Surgical Procedures * methods   MeSH
• Computer Simulation MeSH
• Cone-Beam Computed Tomography methods   MeSH
• Image Processing, Computer-Assisted MeSH
• Software MeSH
• Equipment and Supplies economics   MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
• Review MeSH

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate sexual dimorphism of facial form and shape and to describe differences between the average female and male face from 12 to 15 years. SETTING AND SAMPLE POPULATION: Overall 120 facial scans from healthy Caucasian children (17 boys, 13 girls) were longitudinally evaluated over a 4-year period between the ages of 12 and 15 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Facial surface scans were obtained using a three-dimensional optical scanner Vectra-3D. Variation in facial shape and form was evaluated using geometric morphometric and statistical methods (DCA, PCA and permutation test). Average faces were superimposed, and the changes were evaluated using colour-coded maps. RESULTS: There were no significant sex differences (p > 0.05) in shape in any age category and no differences in form in the 12- and 13-year-olds, as the female faces were within the area of male variability. From the age of 14, a slight separation occurred, which was statistically confirmed. The differences were mainly associated with size. Generally boys had more prominent eyebrow ridges, more deeply set eyes, a flatter cheek area, and a more prominent nose and chin area. CONCLUSION: The development of facial sexual dimorphism during pubertal growth is connected with ontogenetic allometry.

• MeSH
• Principal Component Analysis MeSH
• Anatomic Variation MeSH
• Chin anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Forehead anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Child MeSH
• Photogrammetry methods   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Longitudinal Studies MeSH
• Adolescent MeSH
• Nose anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Face anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Eyebrows anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Eye anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Optical Imaging methods   MeSH
• Sex Characteristics * MeSH
• Puberty physiology   MeSH
• Lip anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Cheek anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Mouth anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Age Factors MeSH
• Imaging, Three-Dimensional methods   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Child MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Adolescent MeSH
• Male MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
• Comparative Study MeSH